The nature of the political thought of ancient China. Ancient China - the history of a great empire
Chinese civilization (ancestors of the powerful Han ethnic group) - a group of cultures (Banpo 1, Shijia, Banpo 2, Miaodigou, Zhongshanzhai 2, Hougang 1 Tain) of the Middle Neolithic (circa 4500-2500 BC) near the river basin , e. which is traditionally associated with the celestial name Yangshao. Representatives of these cultures grew grains (plague and etc.) and were engaged in breeding pigs. Later, the Longshan culture expanded in this area: closely related types of cereals (wheat and barley) and lean breeds (cows, sheep, goats) appeared.
Power of Shan-Yin
The Zhou period as a whole was characterized by the active development of new lands, settlement and ethnic mixing of immigrants from different regions, demesnes (then kingdoms), which laid the foundation for the future Chinese multiplicity.
At V-III Art. BC (Zhangguo Period) China is entering a recessionary age. The rural areas of Spodar are expanding, the irrigation system is expanding, crafts are developing, and revolutionary changes are being sought from the military administration.
During the Zhanguo period, seven major kingdoms arose on the territory of China - Wei, Zhao and Han (previously all three were part of the kingdom of Jin), Qin, Qi, Yan and Chu. Step by step, as a result of the baked super-nation, the upper hand began to be gained by the most advanced - Qin. Having taken possession of the neighboring kingdoms one by one, in 221 BC. e. Emperor Qin - the future Emperor Qin Shi Huang - having united all of China under his rule.
Qin Shi Huang, who carried out all his reforms on the basis of legalism with barracks discipline and cruel punishments, was guilty of reexamining the Confucians, their hostile passions (religion of live bait) and the burning of their creations - for those who stink dare to act against the installation.
The Qin Empire fell into disarray after the death of Qin Shihuangdi.
Han Empire
Another empire in the history of China, which took the name Han (Chinese trad. 漢, coll. 汉, Pinyin Han; 206 to star e. - n. e.) having fallen asleep from the middle bureaucracy, Liu Bang (Gao-zu), one of the military leaders of the revived kingdom of Chu, who fought against the Qin after the death of Emperor Qin Shihuang in 210 r. BC
China at this time was experiencing an economic and social crisis, wracked by the loss of stones and the wars of the military leaders of the Qin armies with the elites of the impoverished early kingdoms, which were trying to renew their sovereignty. Through resettlement and war, the number of rural population in the main agricultural areas significantly decreased.
The important feature of the change of dynasties in China lay in the fact that a new dynasty came to replace the previous situation of socio-economic crisis, the weakening of central power and wars between warlords. The founder of the new power became one of them who could take over the capital and forcefully side with the emperor who ruled.
With the reign of Gao-tzu (206-195 BC), a new period of Chinese history began, which took away the name of the Western Han.
In the period from 8 to 23 years. n. That is, Wang Mang will seize power, who will vote himself emperor and founder of the Xin state. A low transformation begins, which ends with an ecological catastrophe - the Huanghe River has changed its course. Due to the triric famine, central power weakened. A revolt began in the minds of the red-browed and rokh representatives of the Liu family for turning back the throne. Wang Mang was killed, the capital was taken, control turned to the Liu dynasty.
The new period took away the name Shidna Khan, and continued until the river. n. e.
Power of Jin and Nan-bei Chao period (IV-VI centuries)
The descent of Han changed the period of the Three Kingdoms (Wei, Shu and Wu). During the struggle for power between the warlords, a new power was founded: Jin (Chinese trad. 晉, colloquially 晋, penyin jìn; -).
Tang Power
The rulers of the Liu dynasty ended their involvement with the nobility and carried out a less successful transformation. The region is now divided into 10 provinces, the “reliable system” has been updated, administrative legislation has been strengthened, the vertical of power has been strengthened, trade and the balance of life have been improved. The size of the rich places and the number of the population of the city have significantly increased.
Regardless of the influence of territorial actions of the Souss, the Song period was considered an era of economic and cultural development in China. The number of places is growing, the number of the local population is continuing to grow, Chinese handicraft workers are reaching heights in manufactured products from portel, seam, varnish, wood, ivory, etc. Gunpowder and a compass have been found, medicine is expanding, new high-yielding varieties of grain are being developed, and crops are being sown. One of the most important and effective innovations has been the systematic and well-organized development of new varieties of rice from Vietnam (Champi).
Yang Guifei, sitting horse, artist Xing Xuan (1235-1305 AD)
Genghis Khan created an organized and combative army, which became a major factor in the subsequent successes of the numerous Mongol ethnic group.
Having subjugated the ancient peoples of the Great Siberia, Genghis Khan launched a war against the Jurchens and took Beijing.
The conquest of New China continued as early as the 1250s, after campaigns to Europe and the Near and Middle Convergence. From the beginning, the Mongols sank into the lands that gave birth to the Pride-Sun Empire - the power of Dali (-), Tibet (). The Mongolian army, under the leadership of Kublai Khan, invaded China from various sides, but their plans were interrupted by the undisputed death of the Great Khan Munke (). Kublai Khan, having seized the Khan's throne, moved the capital from Karakorum to the territory of China (first to Kaiping, and to Zhongdu - present-day Beijing). The Mongols were able to take the capital of the Pivdennosung state of Hangzhou. Until then, China has been conquered, and the Song Empire has been impoverished.
Heavy economic, political and national oppression imposed by the Mongol feudal lords, streamlining the development of the region. The faceless Chinese were brutalized into slavery. Farming and trade were suppressed. Necessary work was not carried out to support irrigation spores (dams and canals), which led to the death of hundreds of thousands of people. The Great Chinese Canal was awakened during the hour of the Mongolian Panuvania.
The people's dissatisfaction with the new rulers was fueled by a strong patriotic regime and rebellion, as the leaders of the secret partnership "White Lotus" (Bailianjiao) were disheartened.
The Mongols, as they say, began active development of the steppes of present-day Mongolia. The Ming Empire includes part of the Jurchen tribes, the power of Nanzhao (the current provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou), part of the current provinces of Qinghai and Sichuan.
The Chinese fleet under the command of Zheng He, which consists of dozens of large-deck frigates, during the current period a number of naval expeditions to Pivdenno-Skhidna Asia, India and to similar safety Africa. Without bringing China any economic benefit, the expedition was abandoned and the ships were discarded.
The Manchu dynasty in the Qing power ruled over the river. In the hands of the Manchu nobility were the most important organs of power and control over the army. Mixed love was suppressed, the Manchus were quickly Chineseized, and what’s more, at the time of the Mongols’ rule, they did not oppose Chinese culture.
During the first two centuries of the Qing dynasty, China was closed to all contacts with the outside world, demonstrating itself as a strong independent power, which was expanding in all directions.
During the course of the war, the superiority of the Japanese army and navy led to great defeats for China on land and at sea (under Asan, late 1894; under Pyongyang, spring 1894; under Jiulian, early 1894).
Triple intervention
The minds imposed by Japan on China led to the so-called “threefold intervention” of Russia, Germany and France - powers that had previously maintained great contacts with China and thus signed treaties And as a detriment to their interests. 23rd century Russia, Germany and France suddenly, but suddenly, attacked the Japanese order with the apparent annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, which could lead to the establishment of Japanese control over Port Arthur, at which time Mikola II encouraged As allies, you see the power to Port Arthur as an ice-free port for Russia. The German note was the harshest, and most representative for Japan.
Japan had to give up. On May 10, 1895, the Japanese government announced the return of the Liaodong Peninsula to China, however, having reached an increase in the amount of Chinese indemnity by 30 million taels.
Successes of Russian policy in China
In 1895, Russia gave China a provision of 150 million rubles at 4% of the foreign exchange rate. The treaty of revenge requires China not to accept foreign control over its finances, since Russia does not share the same fate. At the end of 1895, with the initiative of Witte, the Russian-Chinese Bank was founded. On June 3, 1896, a Russian-Chinese defense alliance agreement against Japan was signed in Moscow. On June 8, 1896, a concession agreement was signed between the Chinese government and the Russian-Chinese Bank for the development of the Chinese drainage plant. The supremacy of the CER took away the land from the road, which came under its jurisdiction. In the spring of 1898, a Russian-Chinese agreement was signed on the lease of Port Arthur and Liaodong Peninsula to Russia.
Buried Jiaozhou by Nimechina
In 1897, William II sent Mikola II to Peterhof and arrived at the control of the German military-naval base in Jiaozhou (in the current version of the transcription - "Kiao-Cha o"), on the south coast of Shandong. At the beginning of leaf fall in Shandong, the Chinese killed German missionaries. On November 14, 1897, the Germans landed troops on the shores of Jiaozhou and buried them. On January 6, 1898, a German-Chinese agreement was signed, for which China leased Jiaozhou to Germany for 99 years. At the same time, the Chinese government gave Germany a concession for the development of two gardens in Shandong and a low-level concession in this province.
One Hundred Days of Reform
The unprecedented period of reforms began on the 11th of November 1898. issued by the Manchu Emperor Zaitian (the name of the ruler's rocks - Guangxu) to the decree "On the establishment of the main line of government policy." Zaitian received a group of young reformers - the scholars and like-minded people of Kang Yuwei - to develop a series of decrees about reforms. Zagal issued over 60 decrees, which dealt with lighting systems, health care, factories, the modernization of the agricultural state, the development of domestic and foreign trade, and the reorganization of the agricultural sector. strength, cleansing of the sovereign apparatus is bad. The period of radical reforms ended on the 21st June when Empress Dowager Qixi staged a palace coup and initiated reforms.
XX century
Map of Vlasna to China at the beginning of the 20th century from the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia
Boxerske rebel
Qixi, widow of the emperor (1900s).
Around 1900, a great uprising began in China, which took away the name of the Boxer or Yhetuan uprising. On 20 roubles, the German envoy Ketteler was killed near Beijing. After this, diplomatic missions were established in a special quarter of Beijing. It is also surrounded by the Catholic Cathedral of Petang (Beitang). Mass killings of Chinese Christians by the “Yihetuans” began, including 222 Orthodox Chinese. On 21 June 1900, Empress Qixi (慈禧) announced the war of Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Ugria, France, Italy, Japan, the USA and Russia. The great powers were good for their sleepy affairs against the rebels. The German General Walderzee was appointed commander-in-chief of the expeditionary forces. However, once it arrived in China, Beijing would already have a small forward corral under the command of the Russian general Linevich. The Russian army occupied Manchuria.
Map of Zaliznytsia to China (1908 r.)
Russian-Japanese war
After the fall of the monarchy, the Emperor of Mongolia decided to break away from the republic and reunite with China. 3 leaf falls were laid down for the sake of Russia. England quickly became involved in the internal struggle in China and turned Tibet into its own zone. Tibet rose to fight and destroyed the Chinese garrison to deprive the country. All subsequent attempts by the Chinese to restore their rule there were met by Britain. Russia was ready to respect Tibet with the English sphere, and England became aware of the Russian interests of independent (external) Mongolia.
On February 22, 1916, the republic was restored. Yuan Shikai was embarrassed by the title.
The Age of Militarists
After the death of Yuan Shikai, numerous military-feudal fiefdoms of various militaristic groups began to take shape in China. The largest was the Beiyang grouping, which over the years disintegrated in Fintian with a large army of Honghuzi Zhang Zuolin, with General Fen Guozhang, and with General Duan Qizhu in Anhui . In the province of Shanxi, the militarist Yan Xishan fell, having invaded the Beiyang groupings, and in the province of Shenxi - General Chen Shufan. The group of late-breaking militarists formed from two great groupings: the Yunnanese with General Tang Jiyao, and the Guangxi with General Lu Rongting.
The provinces of Heilongjiang, Girin and Fentian were under the control of the Fentian grouping, and the provinces of Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and part of Zhili were under the control of the Zhili grouping. The Fentian and Anhui cliques were financed by Japan, the Zhili clique by England and the USA. Li Yuanhong was the protege of the late-breaking militarists. Vice President General Feng Guozhang was oriented toward England and the United States, and Prime Minister General Duan Qizhui was pro-Japanese. In 1917, Japan began to give Duan Qizhu great positions, demanding more and more actions for them, including concessions in Manchuria.
Victory for the Kuomintang
During the Weimar Republic, Chiang Kai-shek's government was withdrawing military aid from Germany. Since Hitler came to power, help has increased with the method of fighting the communists. In China, a factory was created from the production of licensed German production, German contractors began building a special warehouse, China exported M35 Stahlhelm, Gewehr 88, 98, C96 Broomhandle Mauser. China also received Henschel, Junkers, Heinkel and Messerschmitt aircraft, Rheinmetall and Krupp howitzers, anti-Titan and Georgian guns, for example, PaK 37mm, and also supplied Panzer I tankettes.
On November 25, 1936, Japan and Germany established the Anti-Comintern Pact, opposing the USSR and the communist regime. On April 12, 1936, the Xi'an Incident occurred, which prompted Chiang Kai-shek to unite with the communists.
March of Chinese communists near Beijing (1949)
Cultural Revolution
In 1966, the head of the CCP, Mao Zedong, launched a mass campaign to encourage the revolutionary spirit among the masses. The actual goal was the establishment of Maoism as a single power ideology and the weakening of the political opposition. Mass mobilization of youth, which took away the name "
Compass, gunpowder, dumplings, papier (including toilet papier and paper pennies), a seam and a lot of other speeches from our everyday life, what will eat them up? As you might guess, all the smells came to us from ancient China. Chinese culture and civilization brought to mankind a wealth of fruits and vegetables. Moreover, not only in the material sphere, but also in the spiritual sphere, and even the veneration of the great Chinese philosophers and sages, such as Kun-Ji (known as Confucius) and Lao-Tzu, loses its relevance at all times of the era. What was the history of ancient China, its culture and religion, read about it all in our article.
History of ancient China
The guilt of the civilization of ancient China sits another half of one thousand years before the star. e. In those distant times, China was an ancient feudal power, which was called Zhou (after the ruling dynasty). Then the Zhou state as a result fell apart into a number of different kingdoms and principalities, which constantly fought one after another for power, territory and inflow. The Chinese themselves call this long period of their history Zhangguo - the era of kingdoms that are fighting. Step by step it was seen that these main kingdoms had faded away: Qin, Chu, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan.
Regardless of political fragmentation, Chinese culture and civilization actively developed, new places appeared, crafts and rural rule blossomed, and bronze came to replace it. This period itself can safely be called the golden age of Chinese philosophy, since the famous Chinese sages Lao Tzu and Confucius lived at that time, on which we say a few years later, as well as their number neither do the followers (for example, Zhuang Ji) teach They also enriched the world’s treasury of wisdom with their thoughts and practices.
Again, regardless of the fact that Chinese civilization developed during that period from seven fragmented kingdoms, there was little reality, one language, one tradition, history, religion. And never before one of the most powerful kingdoms - Qin, under the leadership of the harsh and warlike emperor Qin Shi Huang, managed to conquer other kingdoms, reunite ancient China under the ensign of a single power.
True, the Qin dynasty ruled China for only 11 years, but that decade was one of the longest in Chinese history. The reforms carried out by the emperor affected all aspects of Chinese life. What are these reforms of ancient China that have so affected the lives of the Chinese?
The first of them was land reform, which left the poor blow to the communal land supply, and first the land began to be freely bought and sold. Another was the administrative reform, which divided the entire Chinese territory into administrative centers, where the poviti (xiang), on which each such povit would be a sovereign official, who with his own head represented before the emperor for the order in his territory toria. The third important reform was the tax reform, since earlier the Chinese paid land taxes - tithes of the harvest, but now the payment was collected separately from the acquired land, which gave the power a large permanent income regardless of the weak crops. hee too. All the vestments, tied to the bad weather, now lay on the shoulders of the grain growers.
And without a doubt, the most important thing in those turbulent hours was the Chinese reform, which then handed over to a united China: first the Qin, and then later the Chinese army was rebuilt and reorganized, until now When the movie was turned on, the bronze armor was replaced by a metallic one, the long-lasting upper garment of warriors. short and handy (like the nomads). The soldiers were divided into fives and tens, tied one to another by a system of mutual responsibility, those who did not show proper courage received severe punishment.
This is what the ancient Chinese warriors, the terracotta army of Qin Shi Huang, looked like.
The power of the reformer Qin Shihawang helped to build the Qin army as one of the largest in ancient China, defeat other kingdoms, unite China and turn it into the strongest power at the Gathering.
The Qin dynasty was replaced by the new Han dynasty, which overtook its successors, expanded Chinese territories, spread the Chinese influx into the land peoples, from the deserted Gobi at night until The Pamirs are approaching.
Map of ancient China during the Qin and Han era.
The reigning Qing and Han dynasty is the period of greatest development of ancient Chinese civilization and culture. The Han Dynasty itself lasted until the 2nd century BC. That is, and also disintegrated as a result of the great turmoil, the era of Chinese power was again replaced by the era of the Western era, which was replaced by periods of anger. After the fall of Han, China entered the era of the Three Kingdoms, then the Jin dynasty came to power, then the Sui dynasty, and so many times one imperial Chinese dynasty was replaced by others. And yet all of them could not reach the same level of greatness as the ancient Qin dynasties. Han. Prote China, having once again experienced the most terrible crises and turmoil of history, is a dumb Phoenix bird, trembling from the sung. Nowadays, we are on guard against the evil evil of Chinese civilization, and even in this article, you, melodiously, read on your computer, phone or tablet, a lot of details of which (although not all) have been assembled, especially in China ї.
Culture of ancient China
Chinese culture is extremely rich and multifaceted, and it has also enriched the foreign culture. And the biggest contribution here, in our opinion, is the paper produced by the Chinese, who actively contributed to the development of writing. At that time, when the ancestors of the rich European peoples still lived in subterranean villages and could not even think about writing, the Chinese were already creating great libraries with the works of their ancestors.
The technology of writing in ancient China also went through a slight evolution and appeared even before the invention of paper; the Chinese initially wrote on bamboo, for which bamboo stacks were split into thin tablets and the characters were applied to them with black ink If the beast is down. Then they were sealed with leather straps along the upper and lower edges, and a bamboo sheet emerged that could easily be burned into a roll. There was a Chinese book like this a long time ago. The appearance of paper made it possible to significantly reduce the cost of book printing, and to make the books themselves accessible to the rich. Although, obviously, the first Chinese villages at that time were deprived of the unwritten language, literacy for the state officials and especially the aristocrats, as well as Volodya’s mystique of the calligraphy sheet, became obligatory. Yu.
Pennies in ancient China, as in other civilizations, initially looked like metal coins, although in different kingdoms these coins could take different shapes. Tim no less, the Chinese themselves were the first, however, already in the later era they began to vikorize paper pennies.
We know about the high level of development of crafts in ancient China from a number of Chinese writers of those times, so they tell us about ancient Chinese craftsmen of various specialties: brewers, smiths, craftsmen and jewellery, goldsmiths, weavers, ceramic makers, civil dams and rowing. Moreover, the Chinese region was famous for its rightful masters.
Shipbuilding was actively developing in ancient China, as can be seen from the model 16 of the cheerful boat, which was well preserved, junks, as archaeologists have discovered.
This is what the ancient Chinese junk looks like.
And so, the ancient Chinese were good sailors and in this case they could have rivaled the European Vikings. Both the Chinese and the Europeans carried out various naval expeditions, the most grandiose of which was the voyage of the Chinese admiral Zheng He, who were the first to reach the shores from the Chinese. new Africa and having visited the Arab region. For orientation along the sea roads, the Chinese added a compass and found them.
Philosophy of ancient China
The philosophy of ancient China stands on two pillars: Taoism and Confucianism, based on two great readers: Lao Tzu and Confucius. These two directly Chinese philosophies harmoniously complement one another. Since Confucianism emphasizes the moral, ethical side of the married life of the Chinese (being with other people, respect for fathers, service to the marriage, proper care of children, noble spirit), then Taoism is more of a religion -philosophical beliefs about how to achieve internal perfection and harmony with the external with the light and at the same time with oneself.
Don’t do what you don’t want to do to other people, so that the stinks will bother you.. - Confucius.
Allowing anger It is great to know too much anger. If you calm down, you will do good. Lao Tzu.
These rows of two great Chinese sages, in our opinion, miraculously convey the essence of the philosophy of ancient China - wisdom for those who have wisdom (in other words, the most important thing from it).
Religion of ancient China
The ancient Chinese religion is richly connected with Chinese philosophy, its moral structure with Confucianism, mystical with Taoism, and also richly with Buddhism, secular religion, as in the 5th century BC. That is, she showed up at the courthouse.
The Buddhist missionary and monk Bodhidharma (the founder of the legendary Shao-Lin monastery), according to legend, first brought the Buddhist faith to the territory of China, where it was squandered on the friendly soil and blossoming with the fruit color, then adding a Chinese flavor to the synthesis. From that moment on, Buddhism became the third invisible stock religion in China.
Buddhism also benefited greatly from the development of knowledge in ancient China (a Buddhist Chen could become a commoner, and being a Chen also required literacy and writing). Many Buddhist monasteries suddenly became important scientific and cultural centers of that time, they were now engaged in the rewriting of Buddhist sutras (hence the creation of great libraries), began to write people's letters, shared their knowledge with them and Buddhist universities were also established.
Buddhist monastery of Shao-Lin, and here we take the beginning of similar martial arts.
Many Chinese emperors supported Buddhism by making generous donations to monasteries. At some point, ancient China became a stronghold of the Buddhist religion, and then Buddhist missionaries spread the light of Buddha to the present lands: Korea, Mongolia, Japan.
Mystery of ancient China
The religion of ancient China, especially Buddhism, was richly implicated in its mysticism, and many of its mystics were created, frescoes, and sculptures were created by the Buddhist traditions themselves. Moreover, in China a special and unique style of painting was formed, in which great respect is given to landscapes and descriptions of the beauty of nature.
For example, this painting by the Chinese artist Liao Songtan was painted in a distinctly Chinese style.
Architecture of ancient China
There are a lot of ancient Chinese spores, created by talented architects of the past, and our burials are still screaming. The luxurious palaces of the Chinese emperors are especially hostile, as we place little emphasis on the high position of the emperor. Its style in the binding order has greatness and richness.
Palace of the Chinese Emperor, Protected Place, Beijing.
The palaces of the Chinese emperors consisted of two sections: the front and official sections, the everyday and residential sections, and the private life of the emperor and his family.
Buddhist architecture in China is represented by numerous marvelous pagodas and temples inspired by Chinese painting and grandeur.
Chinese pagoda.
Buddhist temple.
- Ancient China is the fatherland of football, so respected by Chinese historians, fragments of this ball game can be seen in ancient Chinese chronicles dating back to 1000 BC. e.
- The Chinese themselves were one of the first winemakers of the calendar, so around 2000 BC. That is, they began to revise the monthly calendar, mainly for rural communities.
- For a long time, the Chinese have been chasing birds, and the phoenix, crane and duckling are the most popular. Phoenix emphasizes imperial power and strength. The crane symbolizes longevity, and the rocking symbolizes family happiness.
- Among the ancient Chinese, wealth was legal, but it was understood that a man could be rich in order to take over many squads. Before the Chinese emperors, there were often thousands of concubines in their harems.
- The Chinese believed that the time to engage in calligraphy would invigorate the soul of a person.
- The Great Wall of China, a grandiose monument of Chinese everyday life, is included in the Guinness Book of Records for countless parameters: there is only one building on earth, visible from space, that existed 2000 years ago - from 300 BC. That is, until 1644, and more people died during this period.
Ancient China, video
And finally a great documentary about ancient China.
Today, the peculiarities of the development of the traditional political system in China are unclear. We believe that the revelation of the stages of the historical formation of the political system, through the institutional and ideological components, is comparable to the general phenomenon of the PRC.
Over the course of a long historical period, the people, the type of culture, the noble elite and the dominant ideology changed both the methods and the “extinction” of political modernization: the subjugation of the barbarians; civilizing mission; decolonization and development of a sovereign power; “Christianization of pagans”; “Islamization of infidels”; export of the “light revolution”, democratization of politics and liberalization of the economy, remission of market stocks and others
The history of state administration, especially in the era of the Ancient Gathering, when this institution was founded, and the foundation of state service was laid in the current understanding of the word, and this is not sufficiently studied. It dates back to Ancient China, in the basin of the Yellow River, and later to the Yangtze in the 2nd century. BC That is, the ancient Chinese civilization was formed with its religious and philosophical beliefs (Confucianism, Legalism, Taoism).
The first elements of state administration and elements of state service emerged in Ancient China during the birth of the first state of Shang-Yin (XVIII-XII centuries BC). On the basis of tribal leadership, the decline of the royal kingdom (vaniv) was gradually formed, into which the rulers of the lands (kings of the lands) were ordered. The Shang-Yin state has little rulers who do not have the same rights as their Volodynia. During the Shang-Yin era, the centralized state apparatus actually did not exist, and the state was a small group of Chinese tribes. Vlada Van was interspersed between the time of the nobility and public gatherings. In the XII century. to sound e. the power of Shang-Yin conquered the Zhou tribes. Protyagom XII-VIII centuries. to sound That is, China was founded by the power of Western Zhou, and the VIII-VII century. to sound e. - Skhidne. At this time, 5 major titles of the nobility are formed - gong, hou, bo, chi, nan, as well as 5 ranks of land volods for service - 4 external and 1 internal. The outer Volodians were the princes, the inner ones were the dignitaries.
During the rise of Western Zhou (X-IX centuries BC), a hierarchical government was gradually formed, when some officials were subservient to others. The dignitaries (shanku), who were at bath time, despised the administration and the army. On the lands of the Van there were the titles of “divine lands”, which were small local departments and followed the development of the ruler’s dominion. At this hour, an office is being created at the court of the Van along with the chief. In addition, the department was busy collecting taxes. The lowest Lanka of the administrative-territorial division of China, which united 5 and 10 villages, was served by special officials recognized as a bath.
At IV Art. to sound That is, in most kingdoms, as Ancient China disintegrated, reforms are being carried out, with many rich people being denied access to power. At the courts of rulers, the role of governing the power belonged to professional administrators who performed paid government service. In many kingdoms, administrative districts were created, where trusted officials were assigned to the side of the rulers. China is gradually forming a bureaucratic administrative apparatus.
Straight V-IV Art. to sound That is, Ancient China has the main religious and philosophical currents, the main place in which was occupied by government administration and government service. The most important place among them lay with Confucianism and Legalism. This was the case in the 5th century. to sound e. Confucius (Kung Fu-chi, 551-479 BC) formulated the philosophical and ethical system of Confucianism, which over the next thousands of years became the official imperial ideology and laid the foundations of the systems of sovereign administration and sovereign service in Ancient China. The political ideas of Confucius are directly aimed at achieving internal connections between the top and bottom of marriage and stabilization of management. The regulation of political affairs and the norms of honesty among the ancient Confucius is sharply opposed to the management of laws.
The teachings of Confucius Menzi (372-289 rr. BC) formulated 12 principles of successful management: ordering people through force and beneficence; dissolve the inadmissibility; respect for the wise; reduction of taxes, taxes and fees; indifference to the people in his business; winning the hearts of subjects; love to the people; respect for the important; preserving the good nature of people; spontaneity to the people for good; the joke of a spent Svidoma; justice. At the heart of the Confucians were the values of humane rule and the right of the descendant aristocratic canopies in the political panorama.
Legists (legalists) criticized Confucianism. They have developed a great deal of attention about the technique of implementing power, which is based on a rigid system of administrative orders. Legist ideology, in addition to the encouragement of a totalitarian state based on blind conquest of laws, mutual responsibility, denunciations, total spying on the population, supported the interests of the state servicemen in the minds of the political ruler of the patrimonial aristo kratiya. Having voted for the primacy of the law over moral and ethical norms, they placed the defense of legality on officials who recommended not to obligatoryly recruit from professionals, lest government officials blindly obey the laws.
Emperor Wu-Di, with the new system of state government, embraced Confucianism with legalism, having created an original system for selecting personnel for the administrative apparatus, which assumed that the candidate for the position of the state service could obtain recommendations local authorities and competition skills. ; Under Emperor Wu, the great power was divided into 13 districts, which included regions. On the cob, 1st century. to sound That is, the state had 83 regions, which formed a majestic apparatus of state servicemen, based on a collapsible hierarchical system.
It can be seen that the sovereign power of Ancient China was in polar positions from weak centralization, the presence of vassal principalities to a clearly expressed form of totalitarianism with a high level of centralization sovereign power (the reign of Emperor Qin-Shi Huang).
In Ancient China, religious and philosophical movements (Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism) were first formed, and government administration and government service took a large part in these developments. The most prominent among them was Confucianism, which especially developed in the Middle Ages and gave the moral values of government officials and administrative hierarchies the greatest respect. It turns out that Ancient China first introduced the state system, which declared that all officials could pursue a career in service. In addition, a system of training and retraining of government officials was formed, through which a special Academy was created, and the hieroglyphic page, created by the ancient Chinese, was eliminated, preventing the further development of the system of government administration not the state service.
Let's highlight the development of the political system: China has become agrarian, bureaucratic-authoritarian. China, being the center of the Asian world, was the center of those values that determined the uniqueness of industrialization processes in countries such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. The rulers of the Chinese Qing dynasty did not reach the 19th century. The rapid economic growth of the country, and the fundamental Confucian values of China, group commitments, purposefulness, self-esteem, knowledge, long-term planning, undoubtedly influenced its economic and political development ok in our era of global political transformations. The agrarian, bureaucratic-authoritarian regime in China fell apart from the beginning of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, when China survived foreign invasions and recognized the defeats of the World War. The nationalist military regime of Chiang Kai-shek impressed the top rank of the conservative landed aristocracy, military leaders, stock market speculators, bankers and local elites. However, this fall is explained not by the great quantity of resources, but by the stink of vikostana. The fall of power was based on a special government, and not on the locally organized and functional institutions of the political system, the population was alienated from the praise of political decisions, and therefore, they said, there was deinstitution lizatsiya regular installations. “Political paralysis” called for the weakening of the legitimacy of the Chinese government in China and the collapse of the bureaucratic-authoritarian regime, where the state maintained strict control over social groups; material interests and moral (including political) values were sharply reinforced by one type of another. It should be noted that the power policy of China revolved around this family, which favored loyal positions to the power, the political elite was characterized by isolation and hierarchy, a great influx of small dynasties, feudal lords, and ancient Confucians [8, p.105- 106].
It is important to note that the ideological direction of Confucianism is promising and not at all. Thus, according to the testimony of A. Toynbee, the Confucian system, which has over two thousand roots, is also evident in the life of post-revolutionary China.
Also, the role of the formation of the political system in China is limited by the religious and philosophical beliefs that the state administration, the cult of a charismatic ruler, and the deep reverence of traditions and ancestors.
The other half of the 1st millennium BC. e. in marriage Ancient China took away the name Zhanguo - the Kingdom that is being fought. This was an era of constant wars between the various princedoms and kingdoms that had settled in the ruins of the mighty Zhou state. Over the years, the strongest were seen among them, who subdued their power over the weaker powers and continued to fight for the decline of the Zhou dynasty: kingdoms of Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi Ta Yan. This is an era of change in all spheres of life, production and marriage. The towns grew, crafts became more sophisticated, the rural dominion developed, and bronze came to replace it. Long ago, writers created miraculous interpretations in the fields of natural science, philosophy, history, romance and poetry, which continue to flourish until now. It can be said that at this very hour there lived Confucius and Lao Tzu, the founders of two philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism, the followers of which are now respected by most Chinese.
Regardless of the boundaries, there was one world, one civilization, in which all minds were created not only for the purpose of unification, but also for going beyond their geographical boundaries. Such unification within the framework of a single empire took place at the end of the 3rd Art. to sound that is, under the rule of the dynasty of one of the “seven strongest” - Kingdom of Qin. The dynasty ruled over a unified China for just one generation, just 11 years (from 221 to 210 BC). It's already ten years! Reforms affected all aspects of the life of the Chinese marriage.
Map of ancient China during the Qin Ta Han era
A new one came to replace her dynasty - Han, as if not only did not re-christen everything first emperor Qin Shihuangdi, but saved, multiplied its achievements and expanded them to many more people, from the Gobi desert at night, to the Povden-China Sea at daylight and from the Liaodong Peninsula on the way to the Pamir mountains at sunset. The empire of ancient China, which took shape before the end of the 3rd century. to sound That is, I woke up right up to the end of the 2nd century. n. That is, if new, even more significant changes have resulted before the crisis and disintegration.
In the subsequent history of the civilization of ancient China, there have been many more dynasties, both local and foreign. Epochs may have changed more than once due to sudden periods. Even after the skin crisis, China emerged in such a way that it invariably preserved its identity and increased its cultural wealth. Chergovy's certificates the evil of Chinese civilization we are with you and at the same time. And the beginning of this amazing growth and uniqueness was laid in that distant era when the Celestial Empire was popularized in China.
The street of the Chinese city of the era of Shidny Zhou
The tribute to the civilization of ancient China
Kingdom of Qin Among other great creations of Ancient China, it was not the most powerful or sanctified. It was located on the far side of the country, an unimportant land and lived with numerous nomadic tribes. Although protected by natural boundaries - the Yellow River and the Girsky ridges - the kingdom of Qin was more or less protected from hostile invasions and at the same time occupied a strategic position in the attack of neighboring powers and tribes. The lands of the kingdom, near the basins of the rivers Weihe, Jinghe and Lohe, are very dear. In the 3rd century to sound That is, at the same time, work was carried out on the channel “Zheng Guo” to drain the pain, which significantly advanced the birth. Important trade routes passed through the territory of the Qin kingdom, and trade with neighboring tribes became one of the sources of its wealth. Of particular importance for the power was the small trade with ancient tribes - intermediaries in the trade of the ancient Chinese kingdoms from the countries of Central Asia. From Qin they were exported mainly from goods and vegetables, salt and shovk. In the wake of the cattle tribes, every night and every sunset, the inhabitants of the kingdom of Tsin removed wool, skins and slaves. At the end of the day, the kingdom of Qin traded with the inhabitants of the Muta Ba regions. The native lands and the Georgian riches of these regions, which previously lay on the line of trading routes that led far back to ancient India, caused the expansion of the Qing kingdom.
During the reign of Xiao Gong (361-338 BC), the rise of Qin began. And on the right there was no shortage of economic successes and conquest campaigns. The same thing happened in other kingdoms of ancient China.
At the middle of the IV century. to sound e. the kingdom of Qin was dismantled important reforms, which was celebrated by the dignitary Shang Yang, one of the most prominent representatives and zealous followers of the Fajia tradition. The first priority was land reform, which caused a decisive blow to the communal land supply. Apparently before the establishment of Shang Yan, land began to be bought and sold freely. With the centralization of the Shang Yang state, a new administrative division was introduced based on the territorial principle, which, having destroyed the colossal cordons established by the old tribal division. The entire kingdom was divided into povits (syans). The provinces became more and more divided, and government officials were placed in charge. The largest administrative units were bound together by a circle of five and ten families. Another reform bula podatkova. Replacing the large land tax, becoming 1/10 of the crop, Shang Yang sent a new tax, which indicates the amount of acquired land. This ensured the power of a large permanent income, which would remain in the harvest. Dryness, veins, and illnesses now weighed heavily on the land workers. The new system of collection of taxes provided great funds necessary for the rulers of the Qin kingdom to wage wars.
Zhidno military reform Shan Yana, the Chinese army was rebuilt and reorganized. They turned on the movie before. The war chariots, which formed the basis of the military power of much of the recessionary aristocracy, were included in the army warehouse. The bronze armor was replaced with a new one - from the roof. The long outer garment of warriors was replaced by a short jacket, like that of nomadic barbarians, which was handy for marching and combat. The army was divided into fives and tens, bound by a system of mutual responsibility. The soldiers, who did not show proper courage, recognized severe punishment. After the military reform of Shang Yan, the Qing army became one of the most powerful armies of the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Shang Yan created 18 levels of nobility for the military towns. For the skin taken in full and driven in, one step is given. “Noble-born citizens, who do not have any military merits, cannot be included in the lists of nobility,” the decree stated. The result of the reforms carried out by Shang Yang was the emergence of a strong centralized power in the previously amorphous world - the kingdom of Qin. Already during the reign of Xiao Gong, the struggle of the Qing kingdom began to unite all the territories of Ancient China under its hegemony. The Qin kingdom has many rivals in terms of strength and power. Further conquests of the kingdom, which culminated in the establishment of the empire, were associated with the estates of Ying Zheng (246-221 BC). Through the war of rich struggle, all the kingdoms of Ancient China were united in one place: in 230 r. to sound e. - kingdom of Han, 228 rubles. BC e. - Kingdom of Zhao, 225 rubles. BC e. - Kingdom of Wei. At 222 rub. to sound e. Whose fate was the kingdom of Yan. Ostannіm – at 221 rub. BC e. - The kingdom of Qi was conquered. The chariot, the horse of Wikonan, appeared with extreme precision that conveys all the details of the prototypes. Having become the head of a great power, Ying Zheng acquired a new title for himself and his people - huangdi (emperor). Pіznіshi dzherela call yogo Qin Shihuangdi which literally means “first emperor of the Qin Empire.” Immediately after the completion of the conquest of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Qin Shi Huang launched successful campaigns against the Huns in the late afternoon and the kingdom of Yue in the early days. The Chinese power has gone beyond national boundaries. From this moment begins the history of the imperial period.
Shovkivnitstvo. Shovk in ancient China
Dzherela was talking about the ancient Chinese’s use of the seam worm and the seam coat. Shovkovitsa is a sacred tree, apart from Sontsia, it is a symbol of kinship. In ancient Chinese texts, sacred mulberry trees or okremi shovkovitsa are mentioned as a place for performing rituals associated with the cult of the Mother Ancestress. According to the legend, in the hollow of the shovkovitsa the missing Yin was found, who became the founder of the first dynasty in China. A woman was worshiped as the deity of the seam worm, standing on knees and weaving a seam thread.
Pennies from ancient China
At VI Art. to sound that is, as well as at the other end of the civilized world in Western Asia and in kingdom of Jin The metal pennies soon showed up. Unusual stench began to appear in other powers of Ancient China. In different kingdoms pennies a little, I'll cut the shape: Chu had the shape of a square, and Qi and Yan had the shape of knives or swords, Zhao, Han and Wei had the shape of shovels, Qin had large pennies with square openings in the middle.
Literature
For sheets of paper, bamboo or wooden scarves and stitching were used in China before the paper was released. Bamboo scarves were sewn using a special sewing machine. Seam books were stored in rolls.
Got comfortable writing technology ancient China. The Chinese split hundreds of bamboo into thin planks and wrote hieroglyphs on them with black ink, burning to the bottom. Then, folded in a row, they were sealed with leather straps along the top and bottom edges - a durable bamboo sheet emerged that can easily be rolled into a roll. This was an ancient Chinese book, written on several scrolls - juans; in a rolled form, they were placed in earthenware dishes, preserved in stone screens of imperial libraries, and in wicker boxes of learned scribes.
Politics of ancient China
The Chinese marriage, which was most widely understood at that time, went well and the future changes. This awareness gave rise to numerous ideological movements, some of which stole the old, and accepted all the innovations as a given, others were looking for ways to further progress. One can say that politics has reached the everyday life of every Chinese, and the partisan fires of various henchmen have flared up in squares and taverns, in the courts of nobles and dignitaries. The most famous teachings of this era were Taoism, Confucianism and Fajia, which is intellectually called the school of legalists - legislators. The political platforms that were put forward by representatives of these sectors determined the interests of different persuasions of the population. The creators and preachers of these initially acted as representatives of the high world, as well as unknown and poor people. Some of them came from the lowest levels of marriage, among the slaves. The founder of Taoism is respected by the legendary sage lao chi, who is alive, behind the retellings, in the VI-V centuries. to sound e. Vin wrote a philosophical treatise entitled “Tao de Ching” (“Book about Tao and De”). The anniversary, written by this book, became a song of peace for the passive protest of the community against the strengthening of tax oppression and ruin. Securing wealth, luxury and nobility, Lao Tzu spoke out against Swaville and the cruelty of rulers, against violence and war. The social ideal of ancient Taoism was turned to the primary bulk. However, due to the biased criticism of injustice and violence, Lao Tzu preached a kind of struggle, hanging the theory of "nothing" Therefore, a person is obliged to dutifully follow the Tao - the natural flow of life. This theory was the basic principle of the social-ethical concept of Taoism.
Confucianism emerged as an ethico-political tradition between the 6th and 5th centuries. to sound That is, and an even wider expansion has come. Its leader is a preacher from the kingdom of Lu - Kunji (Confucius, as he is called in the European world; approximately 551-479 BC). Confucians were the ideologists of the old aristocracy, they vindicated the formations of the long-standing order of speeches, and negatively focused on the wealth and elevation of ignorant people. Based on the venerations of Confucius, every person in marriage may occupy a strictly sung place. “The sovereign is the sovereign, the tribute is the tribute, the father is the father, the son is the son,” said Confucius. His followers emphasized the inviolability of patriarchal altars and gave great importance to the cult of ancestors.
Representatives of the third directly, the Fajia, determined the interests of the new nobility. They advocated the establishment of private power on the land, the initiation of internecine wars between kingdoms and pushed for reforms that corresponded to the needs of the hour. This direct thought reached full flowering in the IV-III centuries. to sound e. The most important representatives of fajia buli are Shang Yang, who is alive in the 4th century. to sound e. that Han Fei (III century BC). Legists created their own theory of political and sovereign order. Their creations were the first in the history of China to stick The idea of “legal law” as a means of management. On the opposition of the Confutskiyans, the yaki kruvili with the old traditions of the Zvichi, the legends were brought in, the main control of the Suvori Laws (FA), the Vidpovydayut Zapotam Sudojanosti. They were the henchmen of the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. The struggle for the unification of ancient China has succeeded the very one who has achieved its goal. It was chosen by the rulers of the outlying and least sanctified kingdom of Qin, who wanted to embrace the idea of “a strong kingdom and a weak people,” absolute rule over all of Heaven.
Craft
About rhubarb development of ancient Chinese crafts like a list of professions. Ancient writers tell about craftsmen of various specialties: craftsmen of distilleries, artisans, masters of jewelry, producers, specialists in the production of carts, ceramic makers And, weavers, wind the dams and rowing. The leather region and place were famous for their masters: the kingdom of Qi - the production of seam and linen fabrics, as the capital of Linji was the largest center of weaving craft at that time. Immediately, the workers denied a special development of salts and fisheries to the hand-me-downs. The place of Lingqiong in the Shu region (Sichuan), rich in ore deposits, became one of the most important centers for the production and processing of mineral deposits. The largest centers of analgesic production at that time were Nanyang, near the kingdom of Han, and Handan, the capital of the kingdom of Zhao. In the kingdom of Chu, Hofei was famous for its production of leather virobes, and Changsha for its jewelery virobes. Coastal places near everyday ships. About ancient Chinese courts it is well preserved wooden model 1b-veselny chovn(div. Nizhche), as archaeologists discovered during excavations of ancient graves. Already in this distant era, the Chinese discovered a primitive compass; They first used it on the land routes, and then the Chinese sailors began to settle in it. The growth of localities and handicraft production, the expansion of land and water roads gave rise to shipping and the development of trade.
At this time, connections were established not only in the middle of the kingdoms, but also between various regions of ancient China and neighboring tribes. From the ancient and western tribes of the Chinese they bought slaves, horses, great horned horses, rams, skins and skins; from the tribes who were procrastinating on the festival - elephant tassel, barnacles, gold, silver, pearls. During this period, the kingdom was respected by the stronger and richer, and the number of great traders was greater. And this influx of political life intensified, so that more and more often the most important sovereign estates at the court occupied. This was how it was in the kingdom of Wei in the 4th century. to sound e. the merchant Bai Tui became a great dignitary. In the kingdom of Tsin in the 3rd century. to sound That is, the famous horse trader Lü Buwei, having captured the seat of the first raider. The Tian family rose in the kingdom of Qi.
Three thousand years ago, the Great Chinese Plain between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers began to be populated by the first Chinese. Unrespectful of those that the first powers had soon begun to appear on this territory, their natives considered themselves a single people with a single culture and mine.
The guilt of Ancient China happened in the same way as in Ancient Egypt, Sumeria and Ancient India - on the banks of the great rivers. Near the Yellow River Valley (Chinese - “Zhovta River”) the ancient Chinese civilization was born. The first kingdom died 2 thousand years ago. e. It was called Shang chi Yin. Archaeologists have excavated the capital of this kingdom, Velikiye Misto. Shang and the tombs of the Shang kings – the Vans.
At 1122 rub. BC That is, the warrior Zhou tribe, along with Wu-wang, defeated the Shang and established its supremacy, and most of the population of the Shang-Yin region was reduced to slavery. Ale at 8 hundred to star. e. the Zhou state fell apart under the blows of the nomads; Now the leading role is given to one kingdom or another, of which the greatest power was the kingdom of Jin (7-5 centuries BC..). With the collapse of the Jin power, the period of Zhanguo (“Giving Kingdoms”) arose, when China was divided into two dozen small warring principalities, one after another, which were poorly subservient to Zhou.
6-5 centuries to star. e. - The appearance of the first philosophical beginnings of ancient China. From all these wise men, especially the Chinese, known as Confucius. This idea about “the nobleman”, about respect for elders, about modesty, about the importance of light, about the position of the ruler as the head of the family has become in China the ideal of mutual relations between people - both in the family and in the state.
In 221 BC, the ruler Qin Ying Zheng united the great territories into a single empire and took the title Qin Shi Huang, which means the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty. So that people did not repent, they were kept in constant fear. Tsin Shi Huangdi, having brutally strangled any support, stagnant and most terrible types of strife, for example, could be cooked with live bait in a cauldron. For the slightest offense, a person was beaten on the heels with a bamboo chain or his nose was cut. As soon as the people violated the law, then the whole family knew the punishment: the relatives of the condemned were turned into slaves, who were victorious in important everyday work.
Having regained control of the empire, Qin Shi Huang started a war with the nomadic Huns, who attacked his borders from daylight. We hope to cement our victory in the future with the existence of a strong border wall, which was called the Great Wall of China. Hundreds of thousands of condemned criminals and simple villagers were brought from stone shavers and targeted. The height of the wall was three times the top of the booth. Two carts could easily move along the top. The guards were on duty at the towers. Downstairs they lived, and on the upper Maidan the Warts respectfully walked behind the outskirts and, at times of trouble, spat at the rich smoke, which could be seen far away. At this signal, the great round of warriors hastened to this place.
From the fall of the Qin dynasty to the rule of the newcomers, one of the leaders of the rural war was Luban. By reducing taxes and squeezing out the most powerful laws introduced in China by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Luban became the founder of the Han dynasty. In the Han era, the head rice of the Chinese state was formed, which was imported to the beginning of the 20th century.
Collecting taxes from the great land required Han officials to have knowledge of geometry and arithmetic. To learn the basics of mathematics, special assistants and collections from the department studied vikorism. Long ago, Chinese astronomers accurately described the triviality of dream fate and compiled a meticulous calendar; They saw hundreds of stars and suzirs, they counted the periods of the fermentation of the planets. Ancient China laid the seeds of Chinese civilization and culture - science, literature, and art.
The death of the Han dynasty was associated with the uprising of the “yellow bands” that swept the country in 184 years. Although the insurrection was brutally strangled, it left behind an important blow to the edge. In 220, the Han dynasty collapsed, and a handful of independent powers emerged on its territory. This concept is respected as the end of a long period in Chinese history.