Vimiryuvannya. Vimir scales. Vimir scales Shaping of the scale
DP All-Russian Scientific Research Institute
physical-technical and radio-technical modifications
(DP VNDIFTRI)
I FIRM
Deputy Directors
DP "VNDIFTRI"
Yu.I. Bregadze
________________
RECOMMENDATIONState system for ensuring the unity of the worldVimir scales. Basic provisions. terms and meaning
MI 2365-96
DSI. Vimir scales. Basic provisions.
terms and meaning
MI 2365-96
| 1. BASIC POSITIONS 2. TERMS AND MEANINGS Alphabetical display of terms |
1. BASIC POSITIONS
The extinction is fueled by the various manifestations of power in bodies, speeches, manifestations, and processes. Actions of power in this case are manifested in a clear way (dowzhin, mass, temperature, etc.), and others - clearly (for example, color, which does not give sense to the expression like “red color is greater (smaller) than blue”). Diversity (somewhat or clearly) manifesting any kind of power creates multiplicities, representations of elements on the ordered multiplicity of numbers, in a more formal way, on the system of mental signs creates scales of extinction of these powers news Such systems of signs mean, for example, the meaningless meaning (names) of colors, the totality of classificatory symbols and understand, without the scores of assessments of the states of the object, without the active numbers, etc. Elements of impersonality of the manifestations of power appear in the most logical relationships with each other. Such relationships can be “equivalence” (jealousy) or “similarity” (closeness) of these elements, their number of marks (“more”, “less”), the admissibility of the verse of the mate mathematical operations of folding, lifting, multiplying with elements of multiplicities and so on. bud. These particularities of the elements of impersonality in the manifestations of power indicate types (peculiarities of subordinate scales of extinction).Apparently, according to the logical structure of the manifestation of powers in the theory of extinctions, there are five main types of extinction scales: name, order, difference (intervals), depth and absolute scale. The skin type of scale has different signs, the main ones of which are seen below.SCALES named to beat up the authorities. Their elements are characterized by specific equivalence (jealousy) and the similarity of specific clear manifestations of power. An example of such scales is the scale of classification (rating) of the colors of objects by name (red, orange, yellow, green, etc.), which is based on a standardized atlas of colors, which is systematized according to similarities. In such atlases, which establish the role of their own standards, colors can be designated by mental numbers (color coordinates). The variation in the color scale is determined by the way of equalization by lightening the colors of the colors with the satin with the color of the object being monitored, and establishing the equivalence of their colors. In naming scales, it is not possible to assign the concept of one to the other; they have a zero and a zero element.Scales namenuvan, sutno, yakisni; however, it is possible to carry out statistical operations when processing results on these scales, for example, you can find the modal or greatest numerical equivalence class.ORDER SCALES- describe the authorities, which seem to be related to the equivalence, and to the order of the increasing and decreasing manifestations of power. Typical examples of scales are the basic scales of numbers of body hardness, scales of earth trousers, scales of wind, a scale for assessing the strength of the AES, etc. Highly specialized scales are widely used in the testing methods of different products. These scales also do not have the ability to introduce units of worlds through those that are not only fundamentally nonlinear, but the type of nonlinearity may be different and unknown on different scales. The results of hardness scales, for example, are expressed in Brinell, Vickers, Rockwell, Shore hardness numbers, and not in hardness units. Scales of order allow monotonous transformations, which may or may have a zero element.VARIANCE SCALES (INTERVALS) - from the scales to the order that from the powers they describe, there is a sense of equivalence and order, and the suggestion of intervals (differences) between various different manifestations of powers. A characteristic feature is the hour interval scale. Hour intervals (for example, work periods, study periods) can be added and displayed, or dates of any kind can be added without any hassle.Another example, the scale of dovzhins (extensions) - space intervals, is determined by the way of connecting the zero of the line with one point, and then working at another point. What type of scales are the temperature scales of Celsius, Fahrenheit, Reaumur.The scales of difference vary widely (accepted for the year) ones of extinctions and zeros, which spiral like benchmarks.In these scales, linear transformations are permissible, and in some stagnant procedures, the search for mathematical calculation, standard adjustment, asymmetry coefficient and displacement moments.VIDNOSIN SCALES . Until there are many manifestations in these scales, there is a constant correlation between equivalence and order - the operation is continuous and multiplying (scales of the 1st kind - proportional scales), and in many cases subsumption (scales of 2nd kind - additive scales). The scales of notes have mental (accepted for the year) ones and natural zeros. The butts of the scales are weight scales (2nd class), thermodynamic temperature scale (1st class).The masses of any objects can be summed up, but the temperatures of different bodies can be summed up without any sense, although one can judge the difference based on their thermodynamic temperatures. Value scales are widely used in physics and technology; all arithmetic and statistical operations are permissible with them.ABSOLUTE SCALES - All signs of the scales are marked, but in addition there is a naturally unambiguous meaning of the unit of vibration in them. Such scales are used for various specific quantities (scales of the same quantities: enhancement coefficients, attenuation coefficients, CCD, extinction coefficients, amplitude modulation, etc.). LOGARITHMIC SCALES - logarithmic transformation of scales, which often stagnate in practice, leads to a change in the type of scales. Logarithmic scales have become more practical based on the establishment of systems of tens and natural logarithms, as well as logarithms based on base two. A logarithm is a dimensionless number, so before the logarithm there is a dimensioned value that is reconstituted, on the cob it turns into a dimensionless way in the bottom on the basis of the year, more (support) of the same value, after which it ends This is a logarithm operation.Depending on the type of scale given the logarithmic transformation, the logarithmic scale can be of two types. When the absolute scales are converted logarithmically, the result is an absolute logarithmic scale, which is sometimes called a logarithmic scale with a floating zero, because they do not have fixed reference values. The butts of such scales are scales for strengthening (weakening) the dB signal. For values on absolute logarithmic scales, addition and expansion operations are permissible.When the scales of intervals and intervals are reconstituted logarithmically, the output is a logarithmic scale of intervals with a fixed zero, which corresponds to the accepted reference value of the scale that is being reconstituted. In radio engineering, as a reference, values of 1 mW, 1, 1 µV are most often used; in acoustics - 20 μPa and in. Until these scales, it is not possible to directly define the same arithmetic operation in the zagalny form; The addition and determination of the values expressed in the values of such scales is carried out by finding their antilogarithms, finding the necessary arithmetic operations and re-logarithmizing the result.BIOPHYSICAL SCALES . In metrological practice there is a series of scales that describe the reactions of biological objects, first of all people, the physical officials who react to them. Before them are scales of light and color dimming, scales of sound absorption, scales of equivalent doses of ionizing vibrations, etc. We will call such scales biophysical. The biophysical scale is a scale of the variation of the powers of a physical factor (stimulus), modified in such a way that the results of the variation of these powers can be used to predict the level or nature of the reaction of a biological object to this factor. Such scales will be behind the models that modify (transform) the results of the vibrating power of the stimulus, so that there is a clear similarity between the result of the vibrating and the characteristics of the biological reaction (a homomorphic representation of the impersonality of the stimuli to an impersonal reaction). In this case, multiple stimuli may produce equivalent responses.Such a modified stimulus scale naturally, with a logical structure, approaches the structure of the reaction scale and acquires predictive value.However, as a rule, the biophysical scale of stimuli and the scale of similar reactions are compared with scales of different types, so predictive judgments about reactions to stimuli cannot be directly transferred to the logical relationship of the stimulus scale. So, for example, the brightness scale, from the looks of the stimuli, is not surrounded by an additive scale of notes, and from the perspective of a person, it is a scale of order in the bordered bottom and the entire range of stimulus values.Most powers are described by one-dimensional scales, but power is described by rich-dimensional scales - three-dimensional scales of color in colorimetry, two-dimensional scales of electrical impedances, etc. The main features and features of the types of scales are systematized in Table 1.The practical implementation of scales of scales is achieved by standardizing both the scales and scales themselves, and, where necessary, the methods and specifications for their unambiguous creation. Naming scales and systems can be implemented without standards (Linnaeus classification scale, odor scale, Beaufort scale), if the creation of standards is required, all of them represent the entire structure of the practical part of the scale (example - symbols of hardness). Making any changes to the specification, which means the scale is named or in order, means the introduction of a new scale.Scales of difference and length (metric scales), types S.I., call for standards. The etalons of these scales can be used to expand one point of the scale (the standard of the mass), a point of the scale (the standard of the dove) or even the entire scale (the standard of the hour).In metrological NDs, it will be necessary to talk more about the installation and creation of units of vimirs. The truth is for the quantities that correspond to the basic units S.I.(second, kelvin, candela and in), the units save and open scales (atomic and astronomical hours, temperature MTSh-90, etc.).For any option, the standards are used by inversion schemes to create all the scale sections necessary for practice. Absolute scales can be folded into symbols that represent their own divisions (like symbols of metric scales), or can be created without them (CCD, amplification factor). The features of the creation (implementation) of scales are systematized in Table 2.Table 1
Basic signs of the classification of world scales
|
Sign of the type of scale of vimirs |
Vimir scale type |
|||||
|
Naimenuwan |
Order |
difference (intervals) |
Vidnosin |
Absolutely |
||
|
1st kind |
2nd kind |
|||||
| Acceptable logical and mathematical relationships between manifestations of power | Equivalence | Equivalence, order | Equivalence, order, inclusion of intervals | Equivalence, order, proportionality | Equivalence, order, subsumption | |
| The presence of zero | It makes no sense | Not obov'yazkovo | Є natural value of zero | Є natural value of zero | ||
| Detection of a single species | It makes no sense | It makes no sense | Installed after a year | Installed after a year | Installed after a year | Є natural criterion for establishing the size of units |
| Rich worldliness | Mozhliva | Mozhliva | Mozhliva | Mozhliva | Mozhliva | Mozhliva |
| Acceptable re-creation | that zoomorphic image | m onotonic re-creation | Multiply by number | Multiply by number | daily | |
Features of the implementation of world scales
|
Features of the implementation of scales |
Vimir scale type |
||||
|
Naimenuwan |
Order |
Retail |
Vidnosin |
Absolutely |
|
| Introduction of some vimirs | It is fundamentally impossible to send away a single extinction | It is possible to enter units of change | It is possible to enter units of change | ||
| The need to express the implemented scale | Scales can be implemented without special standards | Most scales are implemented only with the help of special standards | Scales can be sold without standards | ||
| What is the responsibility to set the standard for its obviousness? | Every part of the scale is being victorious | I bite a part or a point of the scale and a mental zero | Yakus part or point of the scale | There are no tongue-lashings | |
2. TERMS AND MEANINGS
MetrologyThe science of vibration, methods and techniques for ensuring its integrity and ways to achieve the necessary accuracy.Legal metrologyA section of metrology that includes the mutual relations of legislators and scientific and technical nutrition, which will require regulation from the side of the state and (or) light density, to ensure the unity of the world.Theoretical metrologyA branch of metrology in which the theoretical foundations are studied and developed (the theory of vimirs, the theory of vimir scales, the problems of installing systems of vimirs, the nutritional development of fundamental constants in metrology, etc.).Practical (applied) metrologyA branch of metrology in which the practical principles of theoretical and legislative metrology are divided and divided.One day of extinctionsThe state of extinctions, for which their results are expressed in legal units and scales of extinctions, and the insignificance (hijacking) of the results of extinctions does not go beyond the boundaries (from the given homovirality).Note. This important concept of “unitity of the worlds” does not comply with the Law “On ensuring the unity of the worlds” (Article 1), but expands it into scales of order (division “scale of the worlds”).Scale of Vimirs (scale) Representations of the impersonality of various manifestations of clear and powerful power have been adopted over the years by ordering the impersonality of numbers and another system of logically related signs (digits).Notes. 1. The concept of vibration scale (in short - scale) does not correspond to the method of vibration with the external device (scale).2. There are five types of scales: name, order, difference (intervals), value and absolute.3. Applications of systems of signs that create scales of vibration, meaning assessments of the authorities of objects, meaning the color of an object, meaning the name of the state of an object, the totality of classification symbols or understanding too bad.4. Scales of difference and length are referred to as “metric scales”.5. One-dimensional and multi-dimensional vibration scales are differentiated.Magnitude scaleScale of worldviews of kilka yak. Scale type The classification sign of the extinction scale, which characterizes the totality of powerful and logical relationships.Name scaleThe scale of extreme acidity, which is characterized by the relative equivalence of various manifestations of this characteristic.Notes. 1. The impersonal manifestations (realizations) of clear power can be ordered according to the sign of closeness (similarity) and (or) to the sign of the possible number of differences in various subsets of the manifestation of power.For example, the color scales spiral into a tricoordinate model of the color space, ordered by different colors (brightness) and brightness (brightness).2. Noticeable signs of naming scales: uncertainty in any understanding: zero, one of worlds, dimensions; the permissibility of both isomorphic and homomorphic creations; the possibility of implementation both with and without the help of additional standards; It is inadmissible to change the specifications that describe specific scales. Most often, the scale of names is indicated by the order of “classes of equivalence”. Scale order The scale of varying power, which is characterized by the equivalence and order of growth (change) of various manifestations of power.Note. Noticeable signs of scales in order: the uncertainty of understanding “one of the worlds” and “dimensions”, the need for clarity of zero, the admissibility of any monotonous transformations, the possibility of implementation using additional standards, And without them, it is inadmissible to change the specifications, describe specific scales.The scale of varying degrees of power, which is characterized by the relationship of equivalence, order, the inclusion of different intervals, manifestations of power.Note. Noticeable signs of difference scales: the presence of zero and one extinctions established over the year, the consistency of the concept of “dimension”, the admissibility of linear transformations, the implementation of standards that are not in appearance, the admissibility change the specifications, describe specific scales.Depth scaleThe scale of extinctions of large-scale power, which is characterized by the relationships of equivalence, order, proportionality (the operation of subsumption is allowed in a number of cases) of various manifestations of power.Notes. 1. Conspicuous signs of the scales: the presence of a natural zero and one of the extinctions established over the year, the validity of the concept of “dimension”, the permissibility of large-scale transformations, the implementation of standards that are not in sight, the permissibility change the specifications, describe specific scales.2. Wear scales in which there is no sense of the operation of subsumption are called “proportional weir scales,” and scales in which this operation does not have a sense are called “additive weir scales.” For example, the scale of thermodynamic temperatures is proportional, the scale of mass is additive.Absolute scaleThe scale of values (proportional and additive) is dimensionless.Notes. 1. Noticeable signs of absolute scales: the presence of natural (not stored in the accepted system) one zero and one dimensionless one of worlds, the admissibility of similar transformations, the implementation both with and without additional symbols, permissible There are specifications that describe specific scales.2. The results of measurements in absolute scales can be expressed not only in dimensionless units, but also in units, ppm, decibels, bits (div. logarithmic scales),3. Units of absolute scales may overlap with dimensional units of other scales. Butt - thickness of recording information in bit/div.4. A different type of absolute scales are discrete (integer, quantitative, quantized) scales, in which the result is expressed by a dimensionless number of particles, quanta or other single objects, equivalent to a large number of manifestations in named power.For example, the value of the electric charge is expressed by the number of electrons, the value of the energy of monochromatic electromagnetic vibration is expressed by the number of quanta (photons).Sometimes on such scales a single number of particles (quanta) is taken as a unit of particles, for example, one mole. the number of particles is equal to Avogadro's number with a special name (Faraday, Einstein).The scale is completely demarcatedAn absolute scale, the range of values of which lies between zero and one (or any limit value of the scale specification).Logarithmic scaleThe scale is based on logarithmic systems.Note . For custom logarithmic scales, use systems of tens and natural logarithms, and create a system of logarithms based on base two.Logarithmic scale difference The logarithmic scale of values is based on a logarithmic transformation of the value, which is described by the scale of denominations, or the difference between the intervals in the scale and so on. scale that indicates storage L=log( X/X 0), de X- Fluid, huh X 0 - take the reference value of the value that is being recreated.Note. Reference value selection X 0 means the zero point of the logarithmic difference scale.Logarithmic absolute scale The logarithmic scale is modified, which is determined by the logarithmic transformation of absolute scales, if the expression L=log X under the sign of the logarithm X- a dimensionless quantity that can be described on an absolute scale.Note. Another type of scale is called a logarithmic scale with a floating zero.Biophysical scale The scale of extinction of powers of a physical factor (stimulus) is modified in such a way that the results of the extinction of these powers can be used to predict the level or nature of the reaction of a biological object to this factor.One-dimensional scale The scale that is used to determine the power of an object, which is characterized by one parameter; The results of measurements on such a scale are expressed by one number or sign (values).Rich world scale The scale that is used to determine the power of an object, which is characterized by two or more parameters; The results of measurements on such a scale are expressed by two or more numbers or signs (indications).Notes. 1. Acts of power, in principle, cannot be described by one parameter. For example, impedance and complex image ratio are described by two parameters that create two-dimensional scales; Color is described by three coordinates in models of color spaces that create tridimensional scales.2. Rich scales can be created to complement scales of different types.Accept a document that gives the meaning of the scale and (or) a description of the rules and procedures for creating the scale (or the units of the scale, as it is).Notes. 1. Some metric scales, for example, scales of weight and weight, are essentially specified by standardized designated units of worlds.2. Specifications of rich items, number of metric scales, in addition to the designated units of worlds, and additional provisions. For example, the specification of the light intensity scale is based on the unit of brightness intensity - candelas, and the tabulated function of the spectral light efficiency of monochromatic brightness Nya for the daylight.Elements of scales of worldsBasic concepts necessary for schools: equivalence class, zero, mental zero, mental unit of extinctions, natural (dimensionless) unit of extinctions, range of the extinction scale. Scale zero Element of scales of order (actual), intervals, values and absolute, their cob point.Note . The natural and mental zeros of the scales are separated.Natural scale zeroThe cob point of the scale, which indicates a strong manifestation of the extinct power, which goes down to zero.Umovny scale zeroThe point of the scale differs (intervals) or the scale of the order, which over the year is given a zero value of the variable power (magnitude).Note. The scale can extend from both sides from the point of mental zero. For example, in the widest calendar scale the day of the Nativity of Christ is considered to be a mental zero. This is why the designation “... until the Feast of Christ” is accepted.Vimir scale range Size size The importance of the measured value depends on the specific object of activity.Significance of valueEstimation of the size of a value on a scale based on the number of units, numbers, balls and other symbols it accepts (value).Note. For clear authorities, a similar term is the assessment of harshness.Scotch ratingThe identification of clear details of a specific object of activity on a subordinate scale is named.Reference valueThe value of the quantity that ideally defines the scale of implementation of the individual power of a specific object of activity.Note. For clear authorities, a similar term is “reference assessment of justice”.Reference assessment of jaundiceAssessing the value that ideally matches the position on a consistent scale is called the implementation of the clear value of a specific object of activity.Reference valueThe value of the table is close to the true value, so for this mark it can be substituted.Reference assessment of jaundiceThe assessment of the sweetness of the table is close to the true assessment, which means that it can be substituted.One of the worldsThe value of the fixed size is based on a numerical value that is equal to 1.Notes. 1. The term “unit of magnitude” is synonymous with the term “unit of worlds”.2. The term “unit of physical quantity”, which means more technically, is not recommended to be used, since it is impossible to define the boundaries of its definition.3. The concept of “one of the worlds” does not have a sense of power, described by scales of name and order.System of units (vimiryuvan) The totality of the main and secondary units of worlds was created in accordance with the rules (principles) adopted for housekeeping.Note. The term “system of units of physical quantities” is not entirely correct, since we know systems of units, for example, International (S.I.), they smell like physical quantities, and geometric ones (flat and fleshy cut), light and others.Between changes, the value of the adjusted value is adjusted for this particular implementation of the scale.Vimiryuvan powerShow the power that is hidden for the objects of activity (body, speeches, manifestations, processes), seen for knowledge and vikoristan.Note. It is not only physical, but also non-physical objects (biological, psychological, social, economic, etc.) that are dying out.Vimiryuvan value (magnitude) There is a disappearance of power, which is characterized by strong responsibilities.Note. The concept of “magnitude” is not limited to the obvious powers that are described by naming scales; therefore, the concept of “power” is more obscure than the conventional concepts of “magnitude”. Basic units of the system Units of quantities, dimensions and dimensions of such units in this system are taken as weekends when the dimensions and dimensions of similar units are approved.Note. Significant procedures for the creation of certain basic units can be applied to other basic and related units, as well as to dimensional and dimensionless constants.Additional units of the systemUnits of quantities, created in a similar way, link them with the main units or the main ones and also with secondary values.System unitsUnits that are included in up to one of the accepted systems.System by system unitsUnits that are included in the analyzed system of units.Note . A unit that is systemic in relation to a given system, and may be systemic in relation to another system.Coherent marching unitThis unit is linked to other main and similar units of the peer system, in which the numerical coefficient is equal to 1.Coherent system of onesA system of units that consists of basic and coherent similar units.Note. The butt of the coherent system of units is the International system of unitsS.I. . Multiple of oneOne, in general, the number of times is greater in a systemic or per-system unit.Note . U S.I.Confirm with a multiplier of 10 steps.Quite a few of the worldsOne, many times less than a systemic or per-system unit.Note . U S.I.Construct with a multiplier of 10 steps minus p.Umovna one of the worldsOne, the size of which was established over the year.Note. The mental units of the world, the world, and the main units of the International Unit System (S.I.). Absolutely one of the vimirsA unit of dimension that is described by an absolute scale, the size of which is clearly indicated by the dimensionless nature of the dimension.Notes. 1. In absolute units, such quantities as the coefficients of transmission, transmission, strength, attenuation, etc. are measured.2. Widely wider stagnation of long absolute units: відстів, поміле.Logarithmic unit of worldsUnit of values on a logarithmic scale.Note. Extended logarithmic units have appeared: white, decibel, log, decilog, neper, byte and in. Unit size The size of the quantity taken as one vimira. Vimiryuvannya Varying the specific manifestation of the measured power (value) with the scale (part of the scale) of the value of the power (value) with the method of subtracting the result of the change (the value of the value and the assessment of the power).Object vimiryuvanAn object of activity (body, speech, phenomenon, process), one of several specific manifestations of power that feed into the world.Note. Vibration objects include both physical and non-physical objectsZasib vimiryuvanThe object, intended for the purpose of calibration, is that it has standardized metrological characteristics, which ensures that it (or) saves every part (point) of the scale with a set deviation (insignificance) over a given hour interval. peace The best thing you can do is save one or more points on the scale.Note. The concept of the world is stagnant in scales that describe both large-scale power (values - “measurement of magnitude”), and clear power, for example, “measurement of color” - standardization of symbols of color.Unambiguous entryThe world that it creates (or) saves one point on the scale.Rich entryThe world that it does (or) saves two or more scale points.Note. A significant approach can be made and (or) save one section of the scale. Example: calibrated capacitor with exchangeable capacity.Recruitment of entriesA set of inputs that reveal the points of the scale (scales) that stand together as a whole, as well as, as there is no sense, in different data. Applications: dialing weights, dialing hardness, dialing colors, etc.Vimiruvalny deviceUseful for calculating, purposes for extracting the value of calculating value or assessing power in the established range (division) of the calculating scale.Note. The vim device, as a rule, is used to place the world and the device to transform the vim value (vim power) of the signal of vim information and its indication in a form available for interpretation.Standard lesson (speech and material) The world of specific power (magnitude), in general, is characterized by a warehouse and value of magnitude (magnitudes), for the extinction of which it is necessary to respect the peculiarity of a given speech (material).Notes. 1. Standard expressions, in general, become stagnant when calibration is carried out, but they can become stagnant as standards during the verification (calibration) of the oxidation methods.2. There are standard expressions of several (clear) authorities, for example, in colorimetry there are widely established sets of standard expressions for the colors of objects - color atlases.Vimiryuvalny recreateUse any part to serve for the extraction and transformation of information about the value that appears (power) in a form that can be manually processed, stored, processed, indicated, or transmitted. Comparator The device, the middle, the object that is vicorized to align the plots (points) of the vibrating scales, which are preserved or created by vibrating methods.Note. The comparator from the world can be used for alignment.Personality scalePart of the device has a special dimming method, which is an ordered series of digitized marks, which are saved and (or) the opened part of the dimming scale.The principle of vimirsThe appearance of the effect is based on the method of vimirs.Vimir methodThe method and totality of methods equalizes the specific manifestation of viziruvannya power (vizmiruvannya value) with the scale of vimiruvannyh possible manifestations of this authority (magnitude).Result of vimirsThe values of the magnitude and the assessment of power are taken away by the way of extinctions.Notes. 1. For the result of measurement on difference (interval) scales, both absolute and absolute, the arithmetic mean is most often taken from the low results of equal precision precautions.2. For scales of order, the result of vimirs can be taken as the median of the results with little caution, but it is not possible to take the arithmetic mean3. The result of measurements on the scales is expressed by the equivalence of the specific manifestation of power of the point and the class of equivalence of the subscale.4. The result of vimiruvan is also responsible for the removal of information about his insignificance (kidnapping).The area (section) of the scale of vimirs, which is likely to have a corresponding estimate of the luminosity and the corresponding value of the calibrated value.Theft of the result of the vimirs (theft of the vimirs) Enhance the result of the adjustment using the reference value of the adjusted valueNotes. 1. In practice, they are always on the right with a close assessment of the abduction of extinction, most often carried out as a means of recovery from the active meaning.2. The term “abduction of extinction” does not become clear until the results of extinction on scales of the order of name, but the concept of “insignificance of the result of extinction” is established.3. Theft of vimirvant and their warehouses are classified according to different classification signs: systematic and random, instrumental, vigilant methods, absolute and certain, etc.Absolute slaughter of the wymirs (absolute slaughter) The loss of extinctions is expressed in units of extinction value.Note. The term “absolute loss” is dependent on the results of the calculation on the scales of difference (intervals), hundredths and absolute.The Vivid Plunder of the Wymirs (The Prominent Plunder)The abduction of vimirs is expressed in the settings of the absolute abduction of vimirs up to the value of the vimired value.Notes. 1. The provision of high-quality robbery in military units has been expanded.2. The concept of “absolute loss” stagnates in the range of values beyond the scales of intervals and absolute scales, as well as up to the intervals of values that are described by the scales of difference (intervals). However, up to the values themselves, which are described by difference scales, the understanding is not stagnant. For example, it is foolish (impossible) to express in hundreds of cases the loss of temperature variations on the Celsius scale and the loss of dates below.The insignificance of the results of calculations, which are calculated when the scale is created.Abductions of the creation scale The differences in the results are calculated as they appear when the scale point is opened.The abduction of the created one of the worldsThe theft was created at any point on the scale of difference, hundreds or absolute.Insignificance of scale transferThe insignificance of the results of the calculations is based on the hour of transfer of the scale.Theft of the scale transferThe differences in the results are determined by the hour of transfer of the scale points.Theft of transmission at any point on the scale of difference, hundreds or absolute.Standard (scales and units of worlds)Devices, indications and confirmations for creating and (or) saving and transferring the scale or size of a unit of worlds to the people of worlds.Note. The Law of the Russian Federation “On ensuring the unity of worlds” uses the term “standard of unit of magnitude”, which instead refers to the term “standard of scale or unit of world”.Vimir scale standardA standard that represents every part of the extinction scale.Notes. 1. The standard can display one scale point (one fixed value) – div. standard of one extinct world.2. The scales are named and the order of display clearly results in a practically correct section of the scale.Standard of one of the worldsA standard that represents one measured value (one scale point).Note. The values of the quantity that correspond to the standard of the vibration unit can be subdivided into the vibration unit.At this time, the values of one of the following standards are displayed: mass, voltage, hour intervals, electrical voltage (including and some other values).First standardStandard, purpose for transferring the scale or (i) size of a unit of vimirs to secondary and (or) working standards, as well as high-precision methods of vimirs.Second standardThe standard to which the scale or size of the unit is transferred from the original primary symbol for further transfer to working symbols and other means of extinction.State standardThe standard, knowledge of the decisions of the upheld and sovereign body as the exit document of the state.Note. In international countries, the symbols of other powers that belong to neighboring powers are usually called “national symbols”.International standardThe standard, adopted for international purposes as the first international symbol and serves to coordinate with it the scales and sizes of units of worlds that are created and preserved by national standards. Working standard The standard, the purpose of transferring the scale (or the size of the unit) to the working standards of the lower ranks (the special functions of the dying ones) and the working methods of the dying ones.Notes. 1. Work units can, in a hierarchical order, be divided into work units 1, 2, etc. discharges.2. Stop the working samples to check and calibrate the calibration methods.Standard of cleaningA standard that is set for the comparison of standards, which cannot, for various reasons, be compared one by one.Transfer standardAttached for transportation, the standard is designed to transfer the scale or unit size to the working standard, which is verified or calibrated, or specifically calibrated at the site of its operation.Creation (scales and units of worlds)The totality of operations that are on the scale of the creation of the scale (or the plots) or the size of the unit that corresponds to their specifications (assigned). Transferring the scale (or the size of one world)Given the scale (or its plots) or the size of the unit, which is kept by the standard, which is verified (calibrated), or in a working way, aligned with the scale (the size of the calibration unit), what appears or is preserved as a more accurate (output) standard.Checking the values of the worldThe totality of operations that are carried out by the authorities of the State Metrological Service (other bodies and organizations that are equivalent to them) in order to determine and confirm the type of compliance with the establishment of technical aids.Notes. 1. Revisions contribute to the development of features that stand in the sphere of expanding state metrological control and visibility.2. As a rule, the main verification operation is the alignment of the sealed material with a more accurate standard, which will become stable during verification. This ensures the transfer of the vimirs scale to the working vimirs with regulated accuracy. Often during verification, a calibration process is carried out to match what is being verified to a standard.Calibration on a personal basisThe totality of operations that are associated with the method of determining and confirming the effective values of metrological characteristics and (or) subject to the determination of the process of vibration, which does not stagnate in the sphere, which contributes to the state metrological control and visibility du.Note. Calibration is a metrological service, the main task of which is to transfer to the person being calibrated the scale to be calibrated in the appropriate calibration range for the calibrator with acceptable accuracy.Graduation of vibration properties (graduation)Experimental determination of the gradation characteristics of individual vimirs, then. Establishing a relationship between the signals of visual information (extensions) and the virtual scale.Note. Operations are calibrated both during conversion and calibration. In this case, amendments can be made to show the vibration properties that are being calibrated.Alphabetical display of terms
U Vimiryuvan valueCreation (scales and units in the world) G Graduation of the features of vimiruval technology d Vimir scale range E One day of extinctionsOne of the worldsOne of the worlds is absoluteOne of the worlds is system-by-systemOne of the worlds is enoughOne of the vimirs is a multipleUnit of vimirs is logarithmicOne of the extinctions is goneOne of the worlds is apparently coherentOne of the worlds is systemicOne of the worlds is systemically basicOne of the worlds is systematically lostOne vimiru is smart Z Significance of valueThe value of the action valueThe value of the action value I Vimiryuvannya Calibration of vibration functions Comparator M Measure The world is rich in meaningThe world is unambiguous Metrology Metrology of the legislatorMetrology is practical (applied)Metrology is theoreticalVimiru method N Recruitment of entries The insignificance of the creation of the scaleInsignificance of scale transferInsignificance of the result of extinctions Scale zero Natural scale zeroZero of the mental scale About Zrazok standardObject vimiryuvan Assessment of authorities The assessment of authorities is validAssessment of government authorities P Transfer of the scale (or to the size of one unit)Verification of extinction methodsThe kidnapping of a created unitTheft of the creation scaleThe destruction of the vimir is absoluteThe destruction of the vimir is certainTheft of transmission to the size of one extinctionTheft of the scale transferDamage to the result of extinctionsRecreate the vimiryuvalnyApproach of vimiryuvanny Principle of vimiryuvan R Size size Unit size Result of vimirs Z Power has been extinguishedSystem of ones System of ones is coherentSpecification of the extinction scaleZasib vimiryuvan T Scale type W The scale is absoluteThe scale is completely limitedThe scale is biophysical Scale of values Scale of extinctionsThe scale is logarithmicThe scale is logarithmic absoluteLogarithmic difference scaleRich scaleName scaleThe scale is one-dimensionalDepth scale Scale order Scale of difference (intervals)Scale of extinction traits E Etalon Second standardStandard of powersStandard of one of the worldsEtalon international Etalon robotnikStandard of cleaningPrimary standardTransfer standardVimir scale standardElement of the world scaleSuch a sign system is how the image is set. The scale element is placed in line with real objects. We can safely say that the scale of scales is a graduated line that displays values of any magnitude (displacement, temperature, pressure). The problem with high-yield products is inextricably linked with the vigor of extinctions. Because it remains resistant to the current benefits of technological progress, it is impossible to achieve a wide variety of products. Next, a report will be given about the need for a scale of extinctions. The types of scales will also be examined in detail in this article.
Vibration and versatility of products
As was already said earlier, if you successfully obtain nutrition, it is related to the clear parameters of the materials and other viruses, as well as by adjusting the modes of the production technology, the quality of the products will significantly improve. To put it in simple words, cost control is the essence of all technological process parameters. The results of their observations require process control. The more accurate the results, the shorter the control.
The post-extinctions have the following main powers:
- Creation of extraordinary results.
- Accuracy.
- Zbіzhnіst.
- The fluidity of obsession.
- Unity of extinctions.
The authenticity of the results means the closeness of the experimental results of the same value, which were obtained in different places, using different methods and methods, from different times and by different people, and from different minds (regions, vice, temperature).
The similarity of the experimental results is that if the results of the simulation of the same value were carried out repeatedly using the same methods, by the same method, in the same minds, with the same precision, they are close.
Whether any world works with the vicors of subordinate scales.
Scale of extinctions. Types of scales of worlds. Apply it
It has already been said that under the scale there is a number of marks that are in order. This series shows the corresponding value of the calculated quantity, which goes one after another.
What is the scale of consistency, as they have different sizes and are the same. Vaughn may be accepted for the good fortune.
In practice, there are five types of scales:
- The scale is okay.
- Centurion scale.
- Naming scale.
- Interval scale.
- Absolute value scale.
Scale order
The places which values appear on such a scale are called ranks. The scale itself is also called rank or non-metric. Her numbers are ordered by place. The intervals between them cannot be precisely measured. This scale makes it possible not only to establish equality or inequality between objects that are being measured, but also to determine the nature of inequality in the appearance of logical judgments of the type “more and less”, “thicker and more beautiful."
Using the same scale, you can see the indicators that are clear, but do not have strict variations. Such scales are widely used in psychology and pedagogy, as well as sociology.
Depth scale
It increases according to the interval scale according to the position of the zero point. Therefore, there is no limit to the mathematical apparatus that is used when collecting the results.
What is the centimeter scale? Based on them, there are values that are established as differences in numbers, which correspond to the scale of intervals. Thus, the calendar hour follows the interval, and the intervals follow the wear scale.
With this type of experiment, the value of any value is compared to the experimental values, which is taken to be equal to one. When calculating the value of an object, you can find out how many times there is more value for the value of another object, which is taken as a unit of time, for example, a meter line. If you set aside the scale of notes, then the vimir can be dated more privately, in a university setting: the vimir of any size is found by the investigator and placed up to a specific unit.
Name scale
This scale is also called nominal. Vaughn is the simplest way. Numbers play the role of labels. The smells are needed in order to identify and separate objects that are moving. The numbers that add up this scale can be interchanged. She doesn’t have any regular drains of the “less-more” type. So people think that this stagnation cannot be mistaken for extinction. By naming the Vikorist scale, it is possible to carry out only a small number of mathematical operations. For example, you can’t read or add up the numbers, but you can smell how many times the number increases.
Interval scale
This is the type in which the numbers are not simply ordered by ranks, but are separated by distinct spaces. The zero point of this scale is chosen quite well. This is based on the centimeter scale. As a rule, you can set the calendar hour (in some calendars the beginning of calculating fates is established for any random reasons), electric field potential, temperature, potential energy of the raised voltage.
The results based on this scale can be calculated using any mathematical method, in addition to the indicated values. The data shown by the scale indicates “how much less or more?”, but it is possible to firmly say that the value of the measured value is how many times less, more, or less. For example, if the temperature in the room has moved from 10 degrees to 20, it is impossible to say that it is now twice as warm.
Absolute scale
Often the magnitude of something is infinitely different. For example, it is essential to take care of the number of defects in products, the number of manufactured products, the number of students present at lectures, the number of lives lived, and so on. Such values die, and the scale shows the exact absolute values that die. The scale of absolute values is the same as the scale of denominations. It matters less that the quantities that are designated in the first place are of an absolute and sometimes not approximate nature.
The results obtained after measuring this scale have the greatest reliability and information content. They are even more sensitive to inaccuracies in the world.
Visnovok
Thus it became clear that such a scale is changing and why it is being victorious. As it happened, she’s not alone. They are five and the skin is vicorized to adjust the desired values. It was previously thought that the scale is responsible for the extinction only of those that appear in sciences such as psychology and sociology, which also have their own scales for the extinction of numerical indicators. In essence, the psychological test also uses such a scale.
The value that is measured is called variable, and those that are measured are called an instrument. As a result, data or results that may be of different types appear and are placed on the same scale. The skin of them should be interchanged with any kind of mathematical operations.
Let's look at the main types of scales and their corresponding groups of permissible transformations.
All scales are divided into two groups. scales of clear signs and scales of clear signs.
Before the scales of clear signs there are nominal and ordinal scales.
Namenuvan scale (nominal scale). Divide objects in this click scale. Then only two hundred cents are fixed: “one” is “not equal.” The only permissible operation with dimensions on a nominal scale is the scale. Thus, such characteristics as important names of people, nationality, names of settlements are recorded. With such figures, mathematical operations such as addition or multiplication are unacceptable. There is no sense in storing, for example, telephone numbers.
Ordinal scale This is a scale of ranks in which numbers are assigned to objects to display the significant severity of certain characteristics of these and other objects. The simplest method is to assess academic knowledge. You can set your professional status on this scale. The data table contains information only in three empirical fields: ”<, >, =”. Acceptable transformations for this type of scales are monotonous transformations, then. such as not to disturb the order of the ancient meaning of extinct quantities. Such data does not constitute information to the extent that one rank differs from another.
As numerical studies have shown, people more correctly (and with less difficulty) eat a diet that is clear, for example, plain, in character, and less bitter. So, it’s easier for you to say how important two weights are, and then let me approximate the weight in grams.
The following scales include: “interval scale”, “period scale”, “absolute scale”.
Interval scale This is a numerical scale, where very equal intervals are displayed. The interval scale contains all the information contained in the ordinal scale, but allows you to equalize the difference between them. The difference between two aggregate values of the scale is identical to the difference between two other aggregate values of the interval scale. p align="justify"> Between the values of the interval scale there is a constant or equal interval. The interval scale is used, for example, to vary the temperature.
In the interval scale, the position of the point in the distance is not fixed. The point of the cob in the distance and one in the world are selected quite well. Whether linear transformation preserves the power of the scale. Here x- Pochatkov scale values, y- The scale values have been changed, b- Positive constant.
The scale has a limit Aligned with the interval scale, another point on the cob is indicated. With the most common butts, this scale has an increase, value, amount of pennies. The reference scales do not allow for any alteration. One and the same empirical value has the following values: 12 kg, 12,000 g, 0.012 t.
Absolute scale allows for transformations beyond the form of identity. This type of scale is useful for recording the number of elements in a given end multiplier. If you have peeled a lot of apples, one student will write in the data table the value 6, and the other VI, it is enough to know that 6 means the same thing as VI, then 6 = VI.
The information content of the worlds on different scales increases with the order in which the scales are viewed. Different scales provide details of their methods of analysis. When looking closely at the sign, the different scales are changed, methods for transforming the different scales are revealed. You can convert data from one scale to another by lowering the scale weight.
in Latvian skale - go) - 1. The storage part of the scaled attachment is intended for the value of the scaled value. The value is indicated by the position of the indicator mark (indicator), which one is occupied or which one is installed during the operation. W. Place gradation marks, either directly (with direct value) or sideways (with indirect value) to indicate the subsequent values of the measured value, as well as corresponding inscriptions and designations. Depending on the method of calibration, the calibration is divided into analog, digital and combined signals. All signals are precisely combined. Their products allow us to evaluate the readings from a great distance, as well as more accurately read them nearby. The markings applied in order and in half on the Sh. It is the duty of those appointed to perform such duties so as not to detract from the operator's respect for the work process. On the analog scale, graduations are displayed as dashes, dots or other marks. This Sh. will provide uninterrupted analogue readings. Graduation marks (div. Fig. 25) are drawn on the scale plate along the reference line. According to the linearity, the graduations are divided into linear and non-linear scales. Analog scales can be of different types (div. Scale type). On a digital scale, the graduation marks are based on a sequence of tenth digits. Such Sh. will provide not continuous, but discrete readings. Numbers from 0 to 9 are displayed on indicators that move mechanically, behind visual ends, or are displayed electrically behind digital indicators. The display looks like many tens of discharges. The difference in the value of the measured value, the readings of which are subdivided by one small digit, is called the discretization value. The combined scale consists of 754 digital and analogue scales. The higher-order digits are displayed in the digital view, and the low-grade digits are displayed in the analogue view (Fig. 26 – 28). This allows you to read intervals of divisions between consecutive numbers (high digits). Whenever a number of scale adjustments are used to display information on the work station, they open the adjustment panel. When designing analogue and digital scales, their deployment at the operator’s workplace is necessary to achieve engineering-psychological considerations that are consistent with arrow and symbolic indications. 2. The sequence of numbers that serve for the quantitative assessment of any quantities; serve as a tool for the vast majority of the authorities of the object. In the psychology of massacre Sh., vikorists study various characteristics of psychological phenomena (processes, authorities, camps). There are several types of numerical systems that indicate similar levels, and also different types: Name (nominal), order (ordinal), intervals (intervals) and proportions (proportional). Their section forms the basis of these mathematical transformations that are allowed by the skin. The importance of equals in the world can be illustrated by a simple butt. If we divide people into those who are either satisfied or not satisfied with their work, we thereby reject the nominal S. If we can also set the level of satisfaction, then there will be an ordinal S. Which is fixed, how many times and how many times If the satisfaction of some is greater than the satisfaction of others, then it can be taken away accordingly interval and proportion of satisfaction with the work. The countries are divided not only by their metrical authorities, but also by different ways of collecting information. In cutaneous hair, the exact methods for analyzing data will be established. Depending on the type of command, which is determined by the additional scale, there will be either Sh. assessments or Sh. attitudes (the remaining ones are expected to be included in social-psychological research). The practice of sociological and psychological investigation of the skin of the world (independently of the world) has its own special name, associated with the name of the investigative authority of the object.
SCALE
a tool for the suppression of the uninterrupted authorities of the object; - a numerical system, where the data between different authorities of objects are expressed by the authorities of a numerical series. In psychology and sociology, different scales will consist of different characteristics of socio-psychological phenomena. At first, one could see several types of numerical systems, which were clearly equivalent to each other, or scales of extinction:
1) the naming scale is nominal;
2) the order scale is ordinal;
3) interval scale – interval;
4) the scale is proportional. This category can be created on the basis of mathematical calculations that are allowed by the skin scale. The dominance of the world's equals can be illustrated with a simple butt. If we divide people into those who are either satisfied or not satisfied with their work, then the scale that emerges is nominal satisfaction with the work. If you can set the level of satisfaction, then the scale will be ordinal. Once it is recorded how much and how many times the satisfaction of some people is greater than the satisfaction of others, you can draw a corresponding scale of interval and proportional satisfaction with the job. The scales differ like mathematical authorities, and they have different ways of collecting information. At the skin scale, different methods for analyzing data are used. Depending on the type of task, linked to additional scaling, there will be either rating scales or scales for the appearance of social attitudes (-> scale of attitudes). In the practice of sociological and psychological research, the skin scale - regardless of the level of extinction - has a special name associated with the designated authority of the object being monitored.
SCALE
1. Vzagali ta all-round – be it any procedure or technique that is based on the method of ordering objects or approach to any progressive series. This value, which is important, is connected with the phenomena that in any skin condition there is a general rule for assigning numbers and values to objects and areas that need to be scaled. The rule (or rules) that stand out in all situations are those that represent a sense that can affect the values of the scale. 2. Any progressive numerical series that can be used to assign values to categories and objects. The main difference between 1 and 2 values here is the difference between abstract and concrete. For example, a thermometer has a scale at value 2, and displays a temperature scale at value 1. 3. A testing tool that can be used to set points or settings, combined with any model. This dimension can be of many types: from the level of complexity, as in the scales of intelligence, to excellence, as in the scales of attitudes. Please note that this particular scaling technique can produce different types of scales. The word scale means to assign numbers according to the current rule.
In case of vimirs, metrology uses vicoristic scales of vimirs.
Scale of extinctions call the adoption of a yearly order of significance and assignment of all manifestations (value) of a specific power (magnitude). Vaughn is the ordered totality of the value of a physical quantity, which is the basis of worlds.
The extinction is fueled by the various manifestations of power in bodies, speeches, manifestations, and processes. Actions of power in this case are manifested clearly (dowzhin, mass, temperature, etc.), and others – clearly (for example, color, which does not make sense in the expression like “red color is greater (less) than blue”). Diversity (somewhat or clearly) manifesting any kind of power creates multiplicities, representations of elements on the ordered multiplicity of numbers, in a more formal way, on the system of mental signs creates scales of extinction of these powers news Such systems of signs mean, for example, the meaningless meaning (names) of colors, the totality of classificatory symbols and understand, without the scores of assessments of the states of the object, without the active numbers, etc. Elements of impersonality of the manifestations of power appear in the most logical relationships with each other. Such relationships can be:
- “equivalence” (jealousy) or “similarity” (closeness) of these elements;
Kalkisna mark (“more”, “less”),
The admissibility of the following mathematical operations - addition, addition, multiplication with elements of multiplicities, etc.
These particularities of elements of multiplicities, manifestations of power, indicate types (peculiarities of scales of vibration that they represent).
Apparently, according to the logical structure of the manifestation of powers in the theory of extinctions, there are five main types of extinction scales: name, order, difference (intervals), depth and absolute scale. The skin type of scale has different signs, the main ones of which are seen below.
Name scales to beat up the authorities. This is the simplest type of scale. Their elements are characterized by specific equivalence (jealousy) and the similarity of specific clear manifestations of power. An example of such scales is the scale of classification (rating) of the colors of objects by name (red, orange, yellow, green, etc.), which is based on a standardized atlas of colors, which is systematized according to similarities. In such atlases, which establish the role of their own standards, colors can be designated by mental numbers (color coordinates). The variation in the color scale is determined by the way of equalization by lightening the colors of the colors with the satin with the color of the object being monitored, and establishing the equivalence of their colors.
In naming scales, it is not possible to assign the concept of one to the other; they have a zero and a zero element.
Scale order describe the authorities, which seem to be related to the equivalence, and to the order of the increase and decline of the rapid manifestation of power. Typical examples of scales are the basic scales of numbers of body hardness, scales of earth trousers, scales of wind, a scale for assessing the strength of the AES, etc. Highly specialized scales are widely used in the testing methods of different products.
These scales also do not have the ability to introduce units of worlds through those that are not only fundamentally nonlinear, but the type of nonlinearity may be different and unknown on different scales. The results of hardness scales, for example, are expressed in Brinell, Vickers, Rockwell, Shore hardness numbers, and not in hardness units. Scales of order allow monotonous transformations, which may or may have a zero element.
Scales of difference (intervals)– from the scales to the order that from the powers they describe there is a sense of equivalence and order, and the implied intervals (variance) between different manifestations of powers. A characteristic feature is the hour interval scale.
Hour intervals (for example, work periods, study periods) can be added and displayed, or dates of any kind can be added without any hassle.
Another example, the scale of dovzhins (extensions) - space intervals is determined by the way of connecting the zero of the line with one point, and then working at another point. What type of scales are the temperature scales of Celsius, Fahrenheit, Reaumur.
The scales of difference vary widely (accepted for the year) ones of extinctions and zeros, which spiral like benchmarks.
In these scales, linear transformations are permissible, and in some stagnant procedures, the search for mathematical calculation, standard adjustment, asymmetry coefficient and displacement moments.
Vidnosin scales This is the most thorough of all the treatments. Until there are many manifestations in these scales, there is a stagnant relationship between equivalence and order - there is a multiplication operation (scales of the 1st kind - proportional scales), and in many types - subsumption (scales of 2nd kind - additive scales).
The scales of notes have mental (accepted for the year) ones and natural zeros. The butts of the scales are weight scales (2nd class), thermodynamic temperature scale (1st class).
The masses of any objects can be summed up, but the temperatures of different bodies can be summed up without any sense, although one can judge the difference based on their thermodynamic temperatures. Value scales are widely used in physics and technology; all arithmetic and statistical operations are permissible with them.
Absolute scales All the signs of the scales are visible, but in addition there is a naturally unambiguous unit of vimirs in them. Such scales are used to vary the relevant values (scores of the same values: enhancement factors, attenuation factors, CCD, intensity and fade factors, amplitude modulation, etc.).
Control food
1. What types of scales are defined in metrology.
2. What scales are based on jealousy and similarity of power?
3. What scales are based on the values of equivalence and order?
4. On what scale is the hardness of metals measured?
5. On what scale does the temperature of degrees Celsius appear?
6. On what scale is the mass indicated?
7. On what scale is the coefficient of corysis indicated?