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As special features of nuclear forces. Nuclear power and power. Radioactive rozpad. Law of radioactive transformation

1.3.1 ... The nucleus of any atom will fold the structure і stock up for years, nucleons. There are two types of nucleons - proton and neutron .
proton - nucleoni with a mass of 1 amu. with a positive charge, equal odinitsi, to the elementary charge of the electron.
neutron -electroneutral nucleoni with a mass of 1 amu
*) Strictly seemingly, the mass of protons and neutrons is calm: m p = 1.6726. 10 -24 G, A m n = 1.67439. 10 -24 G... Proceedings in advance.

1.3.2. So yak masa core practical door A, the charge of the nucleus is z, and the mass of the proton and neutron practical, with such uyavlennyah slid accept yak properly, scho the nucleus of an electrically neutral stable atom folds into z proton i ( A - z ) Neutron_v. Otzhe, the atomic number of the element is є not scho іnshe yak proton charge of the nucleus of an atom, turns in the elementary charges of the electron. In other words, z - tse number protons in the nuclei of an atom.

1.3.3 . The appearance in the nucleus of protons (a part with an electric charge of one sign), in addition to the Coulomb forces, is not enough to lead to the distribution of nucleons. The reality cannot be seen. Nuvannya in the nature of powerless nuclei to produce іnuvannya between the nucleons of the nucleus of the larger ones, below the Coulomb, nuclear forces heavy, as soon as the Coulomb formation of protons is added, the nucleons are pulled together into a structure - the nucleus.

1.3.4. The size of the nuclei of atoms, based on the formula (1.4), is of the order of 10 -13 cm. The power of nuclear forces (unlike Coulomb, gravitational and others) short: nuclear forces only work on small walls, which are of the same order of magnitude as the size of the nucleons themselves.
I don’t know for sure, but for the material a proton or a neutron can be assessed їх effective The size of a spherical diameter, on the surface of such a nucleus, the heavy two suspended protons are temporarily placed on their Coulomb doors. Experiments on prikoryuvach with rozsіyuvannya nuclei of electrons made it possible to estimate the effective radius of a nucleon R n ≈ 1.21. 10-13 cm.

1.3.5 ... From the short-range nuclear forces, they have another property, shortly named weeds . Tse meansє, scho be it a nucleon of a nucleus, not due to the use of nucleons, but if it is not surrounded by a number of nucleons, which should not be interdependent.

1.3.6. Third Power of Nuclear Forces - їх equal action. Oscillations are transferred, if they interact with nucleons of both species є by the forces of the same nature, then they themselves will be transferred, but on the ordinary windows of the order of 10 -13 cm two protons, two neutrons or a proton with a neutron together the same.

1.3.7. Proton at the vilny stanі (Tobto pose of atomic nuclei ) stable . Neutron in vilny stanі trivial hour іsnuvati is not the same: vіn arrogant drop on proton, elektron і antineutrino from the period to the northwest T 1/2 = 11.2 min. behind the diagram:
o n 1 → 1 p 1 + - 1 e + n
*) Antineutrino (n) - an electrically neutral particle of matter Zero mass of calm.

1.3.8. Otzhe, be-like a core to get involved individualized-nim, If there are two main characteristics - the number of protons z and the mass number A, the difference (A - z) is the initial number of neutrons in the nucleus. The individualized nuclei of atoms are taken into the zalous type of nazivati nuclides.
In the midst of impotent nuclides (and in Danish an hour there are more than 2000 natural and individual ones), such, for which one of the two predetermined characteristics is the same, and the insha - to be aware of the value.
Nuclei with the same z (number of protons) are called isotopes. Since the atomic number of the designation is specific to the Periodic Law of D.I. Mendeleev's individuality cheeky of the power of the atom of the element, about the isotope, it is necessary to speak in accordance with the wishes of the specific chemical element in the Periodic System.
For example, 233 U, 234 U, 235 U, 236 U, 238 U, 239 U are all uranium isotopes, which in the Periodic System of Elements has the ordinal number z = 92.
isotopi be-some kind of chemistry element , Yak Bachimo , may be equal to the number of protons, albeit to the number of neutrons.

Nuclidi Rivnoi Masi ( A ), ale with small charges z are called isobars . Isobari, on the basis of from isotopes, are nuclides of different kinds of elements.
put on... 11 В 5 і 11 С 4 - isobarium nuclei in boron and in carbon; 7 Li 3 і 7 Be 4 - isobaric nuclei in lithium and beryl; 135 J 53, 135 Xe 54 and 135 Cs 55 are also isobars of iodine, xenon and cesium are similar.

1.3.9 ... From the formula (1.4), it is possible to estimate the density of nucleons in the root and the mass density of the nuclear speech. When the nucleus is invaded by a sphere with a radius of R and a number of nucleons in the general population, the number of nucleons in one volume of the nucleus is known as:
N n = A / V i = 3A / 4pR 3 = 3A / 4p (1.21. 10 -13 A 1/3) 3 = 1.348. 10 38 nucleus / cm 3,
a, so the mass of one nucleon is 1 amu. = 1.66056. 10 -24 G Then the power of nuclear speech is known as:
γ jav = Nm n = 1.348. 10 38 .1.66056. 10 -24 ≈ 2.238. 10 14 g / cm 3.= 223 800 000 t / cm 3
The order of the induced rozrahunku is indicated about those who The power of nuclear speech is the same in the nuclei of all chemical elements.
Obsyag. attack per 1 nucleon in nucleus, V i/ A = 1 / N = 1 / 1.348. 10 38 = 7.421. 10 -39 cm 3
- also the same for all cores, That is, the middle is between the centers of suspended nucleons in any nucleus (as you can cleverly call the average diameter of a nucleon)
D n = (V i) 1/3 = (7.421. 10 -39) 1/3 = 1.951. 10 -13 cm .

1.3.10. Until now, little is seen about the growth of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Fragments of proton, in contrast to neutrons, were strong until not only nuclear and gravitationally heavy, but the Coulomb effect, it is possible to allow the proton charge of the nucleus to increase surface.

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1. Nuclear power is great for its absolute value... The stench is known to the strongest from all the interactions in nature.

Until now, we have bulo vidomo chotiri vidi vzaєmodii:

a) strong (nuclear) interaction;

b) electro-magnetic connections;

c) weak interactions, especially clearly quilting in particles, but not appearing in strong and electromagnetic interactions (neutrinos);

d) gravitatsіynі vzaєmodії.

For the butt to finish the story, the energy is surrounded by nuclear forces with the connection of the simplest nucleus - the deuteron - at 2.26 MeV, at that hour, the connection of the simplest atom - the water - the road is 13.6 ev.

2. nuclear power May the power of heaviness on the walls in the area of 10 -13 cm, however, at significantly smaller buildings turn into the strength of the economy. It’s not the power to explain the irritating heart of the nuclear forces. It was revealed in the analysis of proton-proton growth with high energies. The power of the heavy nuclear forces is driven from one shot of atomic nuclei.

3. nuclear powerє short-lived... Radius їх dії maє order 10 -13 cm. The power of the short-range bullet is derived from the energy link between the deuteron and the α-particle. However, it looks like Rutherford's predictions on the distribution of α-particles by nuclei, the estimate of the radius of the nucleus is ~ 10 -12 cm.

4. Nuclear forces are communicative... The exchange is essentially quantum power, when the nucleon is locked, it can transfer one of its own charge, spin and coordinate. The momentum of exchange forces is directly connected from the preliminaries of the development of protons of high energies on protons, if in the ringing flow of protons, there are particles - neutrons.

5. The core of the interaction is not only from the source, but from the mutual organization of the interconnected particles, And also from the organization of the backs from the wasps, from the bottom of the particles. The amount of nuclear forces is due to the spin of the fuel from the preliminaries of the rise of the main neutrons on the ortho and parahydrogen.

The evidence of such deposition of traces is also due to the manifestation of the quadrupole moment, however, the nuclear interaction is not central, but tensor, so that it is possible to lay in the mutual organization of the total spin and the projection of the spin. For example, during the operation of spins n and p energy, the deuteron link is 2.23 MeV.

6. The powers of mirror nuclei (mirror nuclei are called nuclei in which neutrons are replaced by protons, and protons are replaced by neutrons), if there are interactions between them (p, p), (n, n) or (n, p) of the same. Tobto isnu The power of charge is the symmetry of nuclear forces... The power of nuclear forces is of a fundamental nature, and it places great emphasis on symmetry, which is divided into two particles: a proton and a neutron. Wono otrimalo I will call the charge of independence (or symmetry) or isotopic invarianceі made it possible to discern a proton and a neutron as two frames of one and the same particle - a nucleon. The isotopic spin of the introduction by Heisenberg was purely formally adopted, and it was accepted that T = -1 / 2 - if the nucleon was in the station of the neutron, and T = + 1/2 if the nucleon was in the station of the proton. It is admitted that there is a clear, trivial space, called isotopic, but there is no way in the common Cartesian space, when the skin part is located on the cob of coordinates of the whole space, it is impossible to collapse gradually, but this power moment to ruch (spin)... Proton and neutron є partly arranged in a isotopic spaceі a neutron pass into a proton when rotated by 180 degrees. Isotopic invariance means that the interaction in any two pairs of nucleons is the same, if the bets are in the same camps, so that the nuclear interaction is the same mode of innovative turns in the simple. Given the power of nuclear forces to be called isotopic invariance.

7.Nuclear force may be in power... The power of the force of nuclear forces is manifested in the fact that the energy of the nucleus is proportional to the number of nucleons in the nucleus - A, and not A 2, so that the skin part in the nucleus is not dependent on the number of nucleons, but only with the number of nucleons. The specificity of the nuclear forces has also been designated for the stability of light nuclei. It is not possible, for example, to add all new and new particles to the deuteron, because there is only one taka Combination with a precursor neutron - tritium. A proton, in this rank, I can make the tied become no more than two neutrons

8. Still in 1935 p. the Japanese physicist Yukawa, developing Tamm's ideas, letting it go as guilty as some of the particles, are indicative of nuclear forces. Yukava has arrived to visnovka, which is guilty of being a field of the other type, I will add to the electromagnet, ale my nature, as I have transferred the particles of particles, industrial mass, to messengers, more quietly.

However, the mesonian theory until now could not properly explain the nuclear interaction. The meson theory of the allowance for the use of unnecessary forces, so that those who are in three tilami and turn to zero when one of them is seen to be incomplete. The radius of the child's forces is less than the radius of the child's extravagant forces.

On this stage of the mesonic theory, not everything can be explained,

1. Phenomenological increase to the potential, so that the power of the nuclear forces appears to be re-insured by the power of nuclear forces - the first step and the need for another reason.

2. the level of nuclear forces to the power of the meson field.

In this context, we will look at the elementary theory of the deuteron on the first road.

Nuclear interaction to indicate those who are special in the cores nuclear power Do not build up to the same types of forces, which are in the classical physics (gravitational and electromagnet).

nuclear power є short forces. The stench is manifested if only on the velmi malikh in the vicinity of the nucleons in the nucleus close to 10 -15 m. Dovzhina (1.5 - 2.2) 10 -15 m to be called radius of the nuclear forces.

Nuclear power to emerge charge independence : Difficulty between two nucleons, however, equally right from the charge state of nucleons - proton or neutron. The independence of the nuclear forces can be seen from the level of energy mirror cores . This is the name of the kernels,in which, however, the number of nucleons is the same,a lesser number of protons in one given number of neutrons in a given... For example, the nucleus is helium and an important one - tritium. The energy link of the cich nuclei is 7.72 MeV and 8.49 MeV.

The development of the energy linkage of nuclei, which costs 0.77 MeV, results in the energy efficiency of the Coulomb output of two protons in the nucleus. Vvazayuchi tsyu value івnoї, you can know that the middle is r between protons in the nuclei of the road 1.9 · 10 -15 m, which is narrowed by the magnitude of the radius of nuclear forces.

Nuclear Power Mayut power of force , how to manifest itself in that, that the nucleon in the nucleus is interconnected only with the number of closest to the newest susceptible nucleons... The very fact is that the lineage of energy is spared from the link between the nuclei and the mass numbers. A... It is practically impossible to reach beyond the nasichennya of nuclear forces at the α-particle, which is even more durable.

Nuclear forces to lie down orієntatsії spіnіv mutually modulating nucleons... This is due to the growing nature of neutron emission by ortho- and parahydrogen molecules. Orthohydrogen molecules have two protons parallel to one, and in parahydrogen molecules the stink is antiparallel. Until recently, it was shown that the growth of neutrons for parahydrogen is 30 times greater than that for orthohydrogen. Nuclear forces are not central.

Otzhe, too much foreign powers of nuclear forces :

Maliy radius of the nuclear forces ( R~ 1 fm);

The magnitude of the nuclear potential is great U~ 50 MeV;

· Deposits of nuclear forces from spinning interlocking particles;

· Tensor character of interaction of nucleons;

· Nuclear forces lie in the mutual arrangement of spin and orbital moments of a nucleon (spin-orbital forces);

· Nuclear interconnection is powerful;

· Zaryadova independence of nuclear forces;

· Obminny character of nuclear interaction;

Heavy nucleons on great cities ( r> 1 fm), change the display on malikh ( r < 0,5 Фм).

v interaction between the nucleons of the vine as a result of the release and the sinking of the quanta of the nuclear field – π- mezzanines ... The smell will start a nuclear field behind an analogy with an electromagnet field, like a change in photons. The interaction between nucleons, which is the result of the exchange of mass quanta m, Induce to show potential U I am ( r):

For a look at the demonstration, the strength is based on the strengths:

Physicists understand "power" to understand the world of interconnection of material concepts between themselves, including intermode parts of speech (macroscopic types, elementary particles), one to one and from physical fields (electromagnet). Every type of interaction is in nature: stronger, weaker, electromagnet and gravitational, and the skin appears to be a different kind of forces. The first of them is the nuclear forces that go through the midst of the atomic nuclei.

What about one core?

First, the nucleus of the atom is small, its size is five dozen orders of magnitude smaller than the size of the atom itself. The zyazyka z zym vinnikє is more obvious power supply: why is it not enough? And even the atoms, which are stacked from the creepy parts, all the better, more, less particles, like the stench to take revenge.

Navpaki, the nuclei do not strongly differentiate beyond the size of nucleons (protons and neutrons), because of the stench of destruction. Chi є the reason for the lack of price?

Tim for an hour, seemingly, that the electricity itself was trying to reduce the negatively charged electricity close to the atomic nuclei. What is the power to force the particles of the nucleus down at once? Tse zavdannya vikonuyut nuclear power, which є in the world of strong interactions.

Stronger nuclear communication

While in nature there are only gravitational and electrical forces, that is, with some of the sticks in everyday life, then atomic nuclei, which are most often stored up without problems, are positively charged against the protons, they were unstable. milion develops stronger, not be gravitationally strong, but attract them one to one. The nuclear force will not be able to attract the attraction even more strongly, but not electrically, if it would not be possible to manifest itself in the structure of the nucleus. Since the protons and neutrons themselves are in vivo, it is important to know the power of that phenomenon, as the nuclear interaction seems to be stronger. Nuclear power є th manifest.

It is shown on the little one that there are two opposing forces in the nucleus є electrically driven by positively charged protons і the force of nuclear interaction, which will attract protons (and neutrons) at once. Even if the number of protons and neutrons did not change, then others tried to turn them over.

Protons - analogs of atoms, and nuclei - analogs of molecules?

Between small parts of nuclear power? First for all nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus. Vreshty-resht stench dyut and between particles (quarks, gluons, antiquarks) in the middle of a proton or a neutron. It’s not wonderful, since it’s visually, that protons and neutrons are internally foldable.

In the atom, the critical nuclei and even more other electrons overwhelm one aspect of one in different sizes, and the electrical forces, as they saturate them in the atom, are easy to reach. Even in the molecules, the atoms are in proportion to the sizes of the atoms, so the inner folding of the rest enters into the load. Responsive and flexible situation, viclikan by partial compensation of internal atomic electric forces, related processes, in which electronics can for the right move from one atom to the last one. To fix the physics of molecules more and more and more, less in atoms. By an analogous rank and in being both protons and neutrons in the nucleus, it is possible to change the size of the nucleus, as well as the molecules, the power of the nuclear forces, so that the nuclei can be poured out at once, more folding, not just the heavy protons.

There are no nuclei without a neutron, except for

Seemingly, the cores of these chemical elements are stable, and the stinks of those stinks fall without interruption, moreover, the range of variances of a wide drop is wide. Why should we pin down our strengths, as we saturate the nucleons in the nuclei? Let us wonder how we can learn from the simple world about those who are the power of nuclear forces.

Some of them are those that are all nuclei, behind the blame of the most extended isotope water (which is less than one proton), to avenge neutrons; so that there is no nucleus with decilcoma protons, as it does not avenge neutrons (div. fig. below). It is also clear that neutrons play an important role in helping protons to trimatis at once.

In fig. The viscera is shown to be lightly stable, or even more powerful nuclei at the same time with a neutron. Ostanniy, yak and tritiy, is shown by a dotted line, when you order, how the stench in the end bag falls off. These combinations with a small number of protons and neutrons do not accept nuclei, but rather they create highly unstable nuclei. In addition, shown in italics, alternative names, are often given by deyakim from tsikh ob'ktiv; For example, the nucleus of helium-4 is often called the alpha-particle, the name, yaku gave, since it was found in the earliest pre-radioactivity in the 1890s.

Neutrons as shepherds of protons

Navpaki, a mute nucleus, crushed only with neutrons without protons; The majority of light nuclei, such as sour and silicon, may be approximately the same number of neutrons and protons (baby 2). Great nuclei with great masses, like gold and radio, may have much more neutrons, less protons.

Don't talk about two speeches:

1. Not only neutrons are needed, but the protons are trimmed at once, but the protons are needed, and the neutrons are trimmed at the same time.

2. As the number of protons and neutrons is even greater, then the electrical output of protons is compensated for by the addition of several additional neutrons.

The remaining solidity is illustrated at the bottom of the picture.

On a small scale, stable and even stable atomic nuclei are shown as functions P (number of protons) and N (number of neutrons). Line, shown by black dots, denotes stable nuclei. Whether it’s a change from the black line uphill, or downward, means a change from the life of the nuclei - close to it, the life of the kernels is stored in the storehouse, or more, in the world of the age, in the middle of the blue, brown areas, but often short, right up to a fraction of a second.

Worst respect, that stable kernels may be P and N, approximately equal for small P and N, ale N, step by step, more, less P more, less in the case of the author. Apparently, it is also the case that a group of stable and very living unstable nuclei need to be fed into the university smoothies for all values of P up to 82. With a large number of nuclei seem to be unstable (I want it to be unstable) Mabut, the meanings of the mechanism of stabilization of protons in nuclei for the supply of neutrons to them in the whole region is not very efficient.

Yak size of atom to deposit from mass yogo elektroniv

Yak vplyuyut pezglyadayutsya power on the atomic nucleus Budova? Nuclear power is poured into the front on the second size. Why are the nuclei so small in proportion to the atoms? Let's start with the simplest nucleus, like a proton, like a neutron: a whole other widened isotope, an atom that can cover one electron (like all isotopes) and a nucleus of one proton and one neutron ... The whole isotope is often called "deuterium", and its nucleus (div. Figure 2) is called "deuteron." How can we explain, how can we trim a deuteron at once? Well, it is possible to see something, but it is not so much to see from an atom of a sinewy water, as it is also possible to take revenge on two parts (a proton and an electron).

In fig. It is shown that in the atom, the nucleus and the electron are even more distant, one in one, in that sense, the atom is larger, the nucleus is lower (and the electron is even smaller.) ... I will often explain why the nuclear forces are more foldable, but not in the atom.

Apparently, there is a small mass of electrons in terms of protons and neutrons. Zvidsi next

the mass of an atom, in terms of day, is close to the mass of the th nucleus,
the size of the atom (by the day of the size of the electronic crumbs) is wrapped in a proportional mass of electrons and in a proportional bulk of electromagnet power; the principle of non-significance of quantum mechanics has a major role.

And also nuclear power or analogous electro-magnetic

What about deuterons? It’s so, like an atom, of fragmentation from two objects, ale the stench of the same mass (the mass of a neutron and a proton is reduced by about one 1500th part), so that offended parts in the modern world are important in terms of yogo size. Now, it is permissible that the nuclear force pulls the proton to the neutron as it does electromagnetically (it’s not like that, but it’s not like that); and then, by analogy with water, mi ochikumo, the size of the deuteron is wrapped in the proportional mass of the proton or the neutron, and is wrapped in the proportional magnitude of the nuclear force. If the size of the ball is the same (in the first place), as in the electromagnetic force, then it will mean that, since the proton is about 1850 times more important than the electron, then the deuteron (and the nucleus) can be taken in a wide range nіzh near the water.

Yes, there is a field of sutta development of nuclear and electro-magnetic forces

But we already realized that the nuclear force is greater than the electromagnet (at the same time), besides, if it is not so, the bullet would not be in the snake to get the electromagnet from the nucleus. So the proton and neutron come closer together more and more at once. And it’s not surprising that the deuteron and іnshi nuclei are not just one thousand, or even a hundred thousand times less, not an atom! I know, well, only because

protons and neutrons are 2000 times more important than electronics,
at cyclical sites, the nuclear force is great between protons and neutrons in the nucleus, in many cases it is more, less of the electromagnetic force (including the electro-magnetic output between the protons) in the nucleus.

Tsya naivna zdogad yes approximately correct vidpovid! But I don’t see the foldability of the interaction between the proton and the neutron. One of the obvious problems of the polarity is that the power is similar to electromagnetism, but because of a greater attraction or irritating building, it is obviously guilty of manifesting itself in a pervasive life, rather than spostering anything similar. So, it’s because of the power that is guilty because of the power of the electric power.

Short Range Nuclear Force

So їkh vіdrіznyaє, so tse those, so that the atomic nucleus of the nuclear force can be reduced outward in the fall, or even more important and great for protons and neutrons, but to be known at an even short distance from one, ale on " , the stench is falling dushe shvidko, nagato shvidshe, nіzh elektromagnіtnі. The range, to emerge, can also be sized with a larger nucleus, only in a larger size, lower than a proton. If you place a proton and a neutron on the view, which is proportional to the range, the stench will be attracted one to one and make a deuteron; If you distribute it to a greater extent, the stench is unlikely to be seen as a hard time. For the sake of it, if you take a zanadto close one to one, so, if you catch the stench, then the stench will be forwarded to you one by one. In general, the foldability of such an understanding, as a nuclear force, is manifested. Physics prodovzhu uninterruptedly develops into a direct explanation of the mechanism of їkh dії.

Physical Mechanism of Nuclear Engagement

Any material process, including and interaction between nucleons, is to blame for the material carriers. They are the quanti of the nuclear field - pі-meson (pioni), through the exchange of heavy and heavy nucleons.

It follows from the principles of quantum mechanics, n-meson, once at times they appear and immediately become aware, at the sight of a "naked" nucleon, they appear at the eye of a clown called a mesonic fur coat (guess about electronic crumbs in atoms). If two nucleons, soaked with such fur coats, appear in the country close to 10 -15 m, they exchange the valence electrons in atoms when the molecules are confirmed, and if the nucleons are heavy.

Whenever there are nucleons less than 0.7 ∙ 10 -15 m, then the stench is repaired with new particles - so-called ω and ρ-mesons, as a result of which the nucleons are not heavy, but caused.

Nuclear power: Budova cores from simplest to large

Summarizing all the stories, it can be seen that:

the nuclear interaction is stronger, the interaction is weaker, the electromagnetism is lower on the walls, which are significantly larger, the size of the typical core is lower, so it does not stick to it in the everyday life; ale
on short sides, with a nucleus, when it grows stronger - the force is heavy (for a mind, but it’s not short), it’s good for an electric drive between protons.

Otzhe, tsya power is only on the walls, adjusted with the size of the kernel. At the bottom of the readings, the type of deposition is shown by nucleons.

The big nuclei will be hardened at once after the help of the bigger ones, but the deuteron will be trimmed at once, the more the details will be slowed down, so it's not easy to describe them. The stench is also not in the new world of intelligence. I would like the basic outline of the physics of the nucleus of the boule for ten years, the richly important details are still actively pursued.