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The foundations of phonology were laid down and expanded by centuries. Classical phonological theories Phoneme and connection

Among the many linguistic disciplines, one can especially see such a section as phonology. This is a science that combines the sound mode of a language with the implementation of phonemes in a language. Master this discipline in the first courses of specialties related to translation, language writing, especially Russian.

Let us take a look at what phonology is, like its subject and knowledge, according to our language in this area. We are also familiar with the basic terminology of this section.

Viznachennya

Let us understand our rosemova from the very beginning.

Phonology is a branch of everyday consciousness that examines the sound mode of a language, the functioning of various sounds in its system and its characteristics.

Let's move on to theoretical linguistics. The main science of learning is the phoneme.

It originated in the 70-80s of the 19th century of Russia. Its founder is Ivan Oleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, a Russian scholar with Polish roots. In the 30s of the 20th century, science took shape as an independent one. Today, it is one of the main philological disciplines and takes first place in the cycle of subjects of theoretical language grammar.

The subject is that treasure

Like any other science, this branch of linguistics has its own special subject.

The subject of phonology is the phoneme, which is the minimal unit of speech. They themselves are ancient phonologists. Non-respectful students may note that the subject is sound, but that is not the case. In fact, they are taught by another discipline – phonetics.

Another food, if you look at the trace, is a treasure. It is clear to them:

  • implementation in the language;
  • essence analysis;
  • establishing a relationship between phoneme and sound;
  • description of the system of phonemes and their modifications;
  • description of the phonological system;
  • connections between phonemes and other significant units of language - morphemes and word forms.

And this is not all knowledge of phonology. Varto points out that the reforms have a higher priority for all other phonological schools.

Views of linguistics-phonologists

This is how Ivan Oleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay became the founder of science. We have broken down the basics and given further development.

No less famous is the scientist Mikola Sergeyovich Trubetsko, who wrote the famous “Fundamentals of Phonology”. He significantly expanded the scientific apparatus of the discipline, describing the main classifications and concepts.

Roman Yosipovich Yakobson, Avram Noam Chomsky and many others worked in this branch of scientific knowledge.

A lot of scientific work is devoted to the problems of this branch of scientific knowledge. Below are the following articles and monographs that give a comprehensive overview of the development of science and the main postulates:

  • R.I. Avanesov, V.N. Sidorov recently published the monograph “The System of Phonemes of the Russian Language”.
  • Stay at home with robot S.I. Bernstein "Basic concepts of phonology."
  • J. Vahek, “Phonemes and phonological units.”

Tim, who is interested in the history of nutrition, will benefit from the book by L. R. Zinder “Basic Phonological Schools.”

Significantly also robots:

  • S. V. Kasevich, “Phonological problems of literal and similar language recognition.”
  • T. P. Lomtem, “Phonology of daily Russian language based on
  • V. I. Postovalov, "Phonology".

Philology students study it in their first year at university, before learning about phonetics or in parallel with it. Knowing the basics of this discipline further helps to master grammar, as well as the rules of spelling and spelling.

Phonemes are the minimal units of language, because It is not possible to divide them into separate units that are consistently displayed in a simple manner. At the same time, the phoneme is composed of a low sign, so that the position of the phonemes does not exist, but only those in the unity of phonemes are sharpened, for example, the sign of soundness, nasality, etc. Signs play a different role, they are divided into:

Differential (discriminating) signs - only after this sign, the phoneme is differentiated from others, for example, deafness-ringing (wake-up - volume).

Integral (indistinct) signs - these signs do not “remind” the stock of phonemes, since in the language there is no other phoneme, directly and unambiguously placed behind this sign, for example, the sign of vibity in Russian<г>, because in Russian there is no gap<γ>.

Phonemes in navchannі Moscow Phonetic School are called independent sound units, which serve as signs of division of words of language, otherwise seemingly, minimal warehouses of sound envelopes of minimal sign units - morphemes. The fragments of the morpheme are understood as the impersonal morphs that are divided, the phoneme stands as the impersonal sounds that are distinguished from the warehouse of morphs according to phonetic rules. Because the drawing is not phonetically structured, but morphologically (like the Russians, I drive) or lexically, the elements that are written are not included in the phonemic warehouse, but in the morphophonemic warehouse. It should be noted that the status of independent language units is not recognized behind the morphoneme, and morphonology is considered not as a relative of language, but as a special sphere that is included both in phonology and in morphology; One of the first manifestations is the understanding of morphological minds instead of phonetic positions, while the other is the variety of meanings, power morphemes.

The cutaneous phoneme is realized in singing varieties, and cutaneous phonemes appear in singing phonetic minds; in the same position the same variety always appears, in different positions there is a difference.

As it follows from the importance of phonemes as a number of sounds that are positionally alternating (possibly including a zero sound), in order to subdivide different sounds into one phoneme it is necessary and sufficient that the sounds be in an additional division ( distribution) in position including phonetic positions and occupied the same place in the same morpheme. The phonetic similarity of sounds does not play a role in their association with this or that other phoneme. This criterion is called morphological.


Functions of phonemes

According to the IFS, the phoneme has two main functions:

perceptual - recognition of significant units of language - words and morphemes;

Significant - the recognition of disparity of significant units.

The IFS has developed in detail the theory of positions - the minds’ absorption and implementation of phonemes in speech. The boundaries of the theory are divided into phonological and morphological positions; Some use sounds to create one phoneme, while others use phonemes to create a morphoneme.

Another classification allows us to see strong and weak phonetic positions. In strong positions the functions of phonemes are not delineated, in weak ones they are delineated. It is obvious that perceptual and significative positions are divided into phonemic functions. In a significative and perceptually strong position, also called absolutely strong, where the sound that realizes the phoneme does not experience the reduction and influx of adjunct sounds, the main variant of the phoneme appears. In a perceptually weak position, the recognition of phonemes is difficult due to the development of their implementation as the main representative, due to the neutralization of this phoneme from any other. In perceptually weak positions, phoneme variations appear.

Prikhilniki Leningrad Phonetic School We appreciate that the established theory of phonemes lies in explaining the fact that some sound units are labeled as such, and are evaluated by them as origins, and others, no less from the phonetic point of view, are not marked with language noses.

A phoneme in LFS is defined as the shortest (individual in hours) sound unit of a given language, created in a new way by distinct morphemes and words, which mean. The identification of phonemes, which are unique to sensory perception, allows the recognition of different phonemes of units that do not create minimal pairs, but appear at the same phonetic positions. Indication of the sensory-perceptive function allows one to contrast the phoneme with the tone (variant) of the phoneme without affecting this function and ensures the ability to see phonemes in the speech stream, and sounds in the articulatory-acoustic The term is not differentiated between one type and the subdivision of verb sounds to different morphemes allows auditory distinctions Ex.

Representatives of the LFS understand the phoneme as a “whole articulatory-auditory image”, and therefore the differential signs of phonemes are considered not as components of phonemes (which is also part of the phonological concept of M. S. Trubetskoy), but as a classificatory feature for describing phoneme systems. Leningrad phonologists are not able to identify differential signs (DS) with the phonetic powers of phonemes, respecting the DP abstraction, which manifests itself differently phonetically in different phonemes, and indicates the importance of learning words by ear and non-differential (integral) signs of warehouses of the background.R. Zinder, you are a russian. The back [ŋ] would make it difficult to recognize the word, although the front articulation is not DP for the normal form [n] seen here.

Sound delineation

According to the traditions of the LFS, different sounds that represent one phoneme are liable to converge in different phonetic minds, so that they undergo additional distribution. Whenever different sounds occur in a new phonetic position, they can be recognized as representatives (alophones) of different phonemes. In this case, in order to establish the possibility for different sounds to occur in one position, it is not obligatory to go into the consideration of minimal pairs: it is enough, however, to go over the fact that the importance of sounds is not determined by position єyu; So, to understand that in Russian language [p] and [b] lie on different phonemes, it is enough to use the pair posta - barrel.

Unambiguous identification of a sound unit with this and another phoneme is recognized in the LFS as possible in any position. Specific units of weak positions, where unambiguous separation would be an impossible inheritance of neutralization, on the symbol of archiphonemes. S. Trubetskoy or hyperphonemes of the MFS are not recognized, and “the warehouse of phonemes of a given word is identical to the warehouse of phonemes of other words, including other forms of the same word”; The meaning of the phonemic structure of a word means that it does not have a sound image. The identification of a sound unit with another phoneme is due to the additional recognition of the differential signs of the unit, which must be taken care of, with the differential signs of the phonemes of the language; so, kintseviy [k] among the Rus. it is applied to the phoneme /k/, regardless of the marking with [g] (horns), since it has the same differential signs as the phoneme /k/

The following functions of phonemes are seen as supporters of LFS:

constitutive - the creation of the sound visualization of the significant units of the movement (from the side of the movement);

recognition - the other side is constitutive, which appears when viewed from the side of the listener;

discrete (distinctive) - vikoristana of the uniqueness of the phonemic structure of meaningful units of their discrepancy; є inheritance of constitutive-cognitive functions.

The importance of phonology as a branch of the science of language is associated with the names of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay - one of the greatest linguistic scholars of the other half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the founder of the Kazan linguistic school. In order to better understand and evaluate the contributions of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay in linguistic knowledge, I would like to briefly characterize the advanced development of linguistic thought in the other half of the 19th century, then. The rocks of the formation of my linguistic viewer.

Having embraced the historical approach of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay opposed the thesis of the need to study living organisms in this current state, without contradicting, however, the importance of the historical approach, but the practice of investigating separate phenomena, opposing the possible need for The decay of the facts of the language is mutual. In addition, it contains a lot of problems: the problem of the social nature of the language, the problem of differentiation to understand about the language and the language (“Acts of respect about the knowledge of the language”, 1871), the problem of the interaction of languages ​​(“Evidence of the phonetics of the Russian languages”, 1875, “About mixed character “All Languages”, 1901), a discussion about the iconic nature of the language, an understanding about the values ​​of the language (“Entry before learning the language”, 1917).

I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay dwelt on children's literature, nutritional pathology, writing about the need to separate statics and dynamics in science, first coining the term “applied science”, and widely using mathematical formulas to explain his positions. .

Our minimal units have morphemes. The sound warehouse of morphemes of the back-alley movement (homogene) may not be preserved. The reasons for this are varied. Homogeneous morphemes break down into sounds and the addition of sounds that are included in the composition of this morpheme, then. on homogeni. Homogenes come in two types: divergenti- changes in that very sound, informed by official laws, and correlate- Historically disputed sounds, but anthropophonically different ones. Homogeneous sounds in native languages ​​are also correspondents.

The need for a consistent approach to the analysis of language sounds (acoustic-physiological and morphological) - and the diversity of these aspects was already demonstrated in the early works of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay (“About the ancient Polish language up to the 14th century”, 1870 and “Acts of Zagalni respect about the language and language”, 1871).

In the investigations about the ancient Polish language, they write: “Beyond the physiological necessity that there is a development of language in all eras, it is explained by the law of the Polish language (and the old Slavic languages), that, for example, words are sonorous when voices move from the other to them silently, at least psychologically, for the sake of sensitivity people, the mechanisms of the language will lose their sonorous stench"

Approaching phonetics from the position of “language mechanism”, the trace can be seen as the beginning of phonological jokes. On the other hand, I respect S.V. Protogeniv, also known as “structuralism”

The phoneme is designated I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, as “the sum of the hidden anthropophonic powers of the given phonetic part of the word, is incomparable when correlative connectives are installed in the area of ​​one language and correspondent connectives in the area of ​​many languages. Otherwise: a phoneme is phonetically indivisible in terms of the uniformity of the phonetic parts of a word” And further: “I understand the phoneme as that sum of phonetic powers, which is indivisibly unified in the equanimity of something between the same There are many different languages.” In this area of ​​decals, a corresponding link is established between the sounds of the same phoneme. I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay did not create the phonological concept, which is based on “correspondents” for the same number of words. Prote prolegomena for its creation in phonological views I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, for example, wrote in his work “The Evidence of the Theory of Phonetic Alternatives.” The term “correspondent” or “alternant correspondence” actually conveys the concept of a genetic phoneme, or genetophoneme. This robot has a meaning, such as I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay does not live the rest of his life: “The phoneme is the only manifestation that corresponds to light phonetics, which arises from the soul in the form of an evil enemy, separated from the same sound - mental Valent of the sounds of the language."

Physically, the phoneme is the same sound as promo. Baudouin points out that from the anthropophonic point of view the phoneme can be compared:

a) complete, indivisible sound;

b) inconsistent sound (for example, softness in the drawing of hard and soft);

c) a complete sound plus the power of another;

d) two or more sounds. For example, the addition of “oro” in Russian words is seen as one phoneme

I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay breaks down the provisions about other elements, including the phoneme. We introduce the concepts of kinemi, akusmi and kinakemi. “Cinema is, from the looks of our minds, an uncomplicated visual and phonatory element, for example, the manifestation of the lips, the manifestation of the soft palate, the manifestation of the middle part of the tongue, etc.

Acousma - from a visual perspective, it is an uncomplicated, acoustic and auditory (auditory) element, for example, the manifestation of mitten noise caused by a vibration between the clenched visual organs, the manifestation of the acoustic result of lip movement, the manifestation of nasal resonance what.

Kіnakema - is consumed by the presence of kіnemi and acoustics in these situations, if the kіnemi and acoustics always come out.” Cinema and acoustics can be switched on or off.

From this position, the phoneme is already defined as “the connection of many non-separable visual-auditory elements (tone, acoustics, sound) in one place for the same purpose of all types of activity Their private results”, and the sound of the movie is “the acoustic result of Mitt’s, past identification of phonemes in the individual psyche” Idea of ​​I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay's equalization is not of solid sounds, but of certain elements of sounds, that is. cinema, as it seems to us, was far ahead of its time from a methodological standpoint.

Yak bachimo, u pratsyakh I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay can recognize the different meanings of phonemes. This unit was understood by him as “the sum of the hidden anthropophonic powers”, seen through morphological analysis when correlative connections were established in the sphere of one language and correspondent connections in the sphere of many languages, then bto. the path of historical-historical analysis. Vin means phoneme as a manifestation of the sound of language, “the mental equivalent of the sound of language”, “sound delivery”, as “the combination of many unintegrated visual-auditory elements into one single whole.” It would be logical to assume that the obviousness of many phonemes indicates the change in views of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, however, it is entirely possible that for him everything means three speeches - phonemes.

Even more important is Vkazivka I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay believes that phonemes and all visual-auditory elements are powered by forces that seem to have no apparent meaning. “Stinks become physical values ​​and can be viewed linguistically only if they are included in the storehouse of ever-living physical elements, such as morphemes that are associated with both semasiological and morphological manifestations mi"

Otje, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay studied the phoneme in many plans:

    Establishment of a completely abstracted functional unit, fundamental for the phonetic structure of linguistic units (genetophoneme).

    Establishment of a functional unit between the same language, in which there is a variation of morphs between the same morphemes (paradigmophoneme and morphophoneme).

    Establishment of a figurative unit between the phonetic version of a verbal word in a native language of an individual, for whom there is an unambiguous connection between the phoneme (image) and the sound (prototype), which realizes the phoneme in the promotion.

    Establishment of a member of a complex unit between the phonetic version of a word in an individual’s language, in which there is an identification between the word (type, sound, psychophoneme) and found in the hearing phase of the auditory analysis congestion with a symbol, which, by means of recognition, is divided into types of rice, and phases of speaking There are typical figures, as in phonology the naming of discrete signs. In this case, the phoneme is understood as a complex of discrete characters (a bundle of RP, according to the terminology of R.O. Yakobson).

In general, Nina has a science about the sound harmony of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay divides into anthropophonics, which emphasizes the acoustic and physiological power of language sounds; psychophonetics, or otherwise etymological phonetics, includes “functional manifestations, then. manifestations of phonetic-acoustic forces, as well as other manifestations of precise sensory forces, etc. morphological, and interchangeably, then. “semasiological” and historical phonetics. The terms “phonetics” and “phonology” may have become synonymous with Baudouin. Another aspect of phonetics is “psychophonetics,” as seen by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, becoming the prototype of daily phonology.

I.A. For centuries, Baudouin de Courtenay has used the concept of a linguistic unit in science. The work “Dyaki Zagalny Respect About Knowledge and Language” says: “It is necessary to separate the categories of knowledge from the category of language: the first represent pure hypocrisy; others - those that are alive in the language, such as sound, structure, root, basis (theme), completion, word, speech, various categories of words, etc.”

Understanding the phoneme as a unit of the symbolic plane, or as an abstract linguistic unit, Baudouin means that one should not strive “for phonemes for great anthropophonic accuracy.” This work contains a lot of basic maxims for phonology, which in current terminology can be identified as problems of marked and unmarked members of the drawing, methods of identifying the main position of phonemes, nutritional expression of phonemes zero, problems of archiphonemes. M.V. Panov says that with the work of 1881 “the correct theory of phonemes begins, the theoretical full-valued phonology begins”

Theoretical thoughts of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay made a significant contribution to the entire subsequent development of the science of language, both here and in Zahod. In the halal-phonological theory one can recognize the influences of all three of the largest European schools created by Russian influences: the Moscow school of N.F. Yakovlev, St. Petersburg school L.V. Shcherby (possibly, they trace back to the Leningradskaya, fragments from the Leningrad period of L.V. Shcherbu, having already formed a different - not psychophonetic school) and the Prazka school of N.S. Trubetskoy and R.O. Jacobson.

The fourth school, associated with the evolution of controversies and modeling on this basis of halal phonemes for low genoisomorphic words within the framework of a hypothetical model phenomenon, was not created. And this is obviously due to the fact that the linguistics of the synchronic type focused more on contrast, less on the complexity of speech in modern languages, although problems of this type were already dealt with in the Memoir about the cob system of vowels in India European Languages" by F. de Saussure. Prote, if a serious motive is identified for modeling, for example, the daily zagal-like Slavic language, a phonology of this type can be created, and for which there is a theoretical basis within the framework of the zagal-phonological theory of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay.

The song of the fourth direction of the phonological views of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay is evidenced by the development by R.O. Jacobson, G.M. Phantom and M. Halle of a universal set of binary disjunctive signs

I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay was the creator and rich ceramicist of the Kazan linguistic school, which included N.V. Krushevsky, V.A. Bogoroditsky, A.I. Anastasiev, A.I. Alexandrov, P.V. Volodimirov, V.V. Radlov, S.K. Bulich, K.Yu. Apel ta in.

The basic principles of the Kazan linguistic school include: the division of sound and lettering; differentiation between phonetic and morphological segmentation of a word; avoidance of mixing processes that occur in the language at this stage of its development, and processes that occur over the past three hours; first-class respect for living language and dialects, and not for ancient monuments of writing; ensuring the full equality of all our subjects as objects of scientific research; pragnennya before zagalnennya; psychologism with adjacent elements of sociologism.

The representatives of the Kazan linguistic school convey a wealth of ideas from structural linguistics, phonology, morphonology, speech typology, articulatory and acoustic phonetics. The stench clearly revealed the idea of ​​a systematic language. The teacher himself and the prodovzhuvach seriously influenced the formation of scientific knowledge of the 20th century.

Ideas and concept of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay is likely to continue in current phonological studies, and structuralism, which only recently succumbed to harsh criticism, taking away its development from interdisciplinary studies of the sound mode of the language.

understanding phonemes in MFS and LFS

1. PhonemesThe new MFS calls independent sound subdivisions, which serve as signs of disparity in language , otherwise seemingly minimal warehouses of sound shells of minimaliconicone – morpheme. The fragments of the morpheme are understood as meaningless wordsmorphs, the phoneme stands without meaning of sounds that are drawn from the warehouse of morphs according to phonetic rules. Because cherguvannya is not phonetically structured, but morphologically (as inRussianind it - inand y) orlexically, elementi, scho cherguyutsya, enter not to the phonemic warehouse, but to the warehousemorphonemes(morphophonemes) . It should be noted that the status of independent linguistic units is not recognized with morphonemes, butmorphonologyWe won’t baptize youequal to the languageand a special sphere that enters both phonology and morphology; One of the first manifestations is the formation of morphological minds instead of phonetic positions, while the other one is the subsistencesignificances, power to their morphemes

The cutaneous phoneme is realized in singing varieties, and cutaneous phonemes appear in singing phonetic minds; in the same position the same variety appears at each time, in different positions - different ]

Yak viliva vnight vonemi yak low sound, pose -to -be worm (can turn it on the sound), for the vidnesna riznich sound to one foneme is short -sighted, the sounds of the sound of the rosesdistribution) are strictly inclusive of phonetic positions and occupy the same place in the same morpheme. The phonetic similarity of sounds does not play a role in their association with this or that other phoneme. This criterion is called morphological.

Functions of phonemes

According to the MFS, the phoneme has two main functions

    perceptual - recognition of significant units of language - words and morphemes;

    Significant - the recognition of disparity of significant units.

The stagnation of the morphological criterion revolves around the perceptual one (in the opinion of the MFS practitioners, the recognition and identification of the words, which is to say, and clearly changes accordinglycontextmorphemes are based not only on the sameness of meaning, but also on the similarity of the phonemic structure), and on the significative function of phonemes (sounds are positionally marked without taking part from the sensory)

2. Adherents of the LFS respect that the current theory of phonemes lies in the explanation of the fact that some sound elements are marked as such and are evaluated by them as substantives, and others, no less from a phonetic point Zora, please don’t rush aroundnative language

Phonemein LFS it is designated as the shortest (indivisible in hours) sound unit of a given language, created in a new way of divisionmean morphemesand drain . The identification of phonemes, as created before sensory perception, allows one to recognize different phonemes that are not identicalminimum betProte appear in the same phonetic positions. Indication of the sensory-perceptive function allows one to contrast the phoneme with a subset (variant) of the phoneme as one that does not involve this function and ensure the ability to see phonemes inPototsi language, desoundsin the articulatory-acoustic relationship, one type is not separated from one another and the adjunct sounds are not subsumed to different morphemes, or it allows the auditory auditory to differentiate them

Representatives of the LFS understand the phoneme as a “solid articulatory-auditory image” thatdifferential signsphonemes are misled not as components of phonemes (which is powerfulM. S. Trubetskoy’s phonological concept), and as a classification method for describing the system of phonemes. Leningrad phonologists are not able to identify differential signs (DS) with the phonetic powers of phonemes, respecting the DP abstraction, which manifests itself differently phonetically in different phonemes, and indicates the importance of learning words by ear and non-differential (integral) signs of warehouses of this background. R. Zinder, pleaseRussianOn a hrearward [ŋ] would complicate the knowledge of this word, I wantPerednyomovna articulationnot є DP for the one who is seen here in a normal way[n].

Sound delineation

According to the legends of the LFS, different sounds that represent one phoneme are liable to converge in different phonetic minds, so as to be inadditional distribution. Whenever different sounds occur in a new phonetic position, they can be recognized as representatives (alophones) of different phonemes. In this case, in order to establish the possibility for different sounds to occur in one position, it is not obligatory to go into the consideration of minimal pairs: it is enough, however, to go over the fact that the importance of sounds is not determined by position єyu; So, to understand that in Russian language [p] and [b] lie on different phonemes, it’s enough to make a betP chta -b eyepieces

Unambiguous identification of a sound unit with this and another phoneme is recognized in the LFS as possible in any position. Specific units of weak positions, where it would be impossible to identify the inheritance of neutralization, on the basisarchiphonemeM. S. Trubetskoy orhyperphonemesMFS are not recognized, and “the warehouse of phonemes of a given word is identical to the warehouse of phonemes of other words, including other forms of the same word”; The meaning of the phonemic structure of a word means that it does not have a sound image. The identification of a sound unit with another phoneme is due to the additional recognition of the differential signs of the unit, which must be taken care of, with the differential signs of the phonemes of the language; so, kincevy [k] inRussianIt is applied to the phoneme /k/, regardless of the marking with [g] (horns), since it has the same differential signs as the phoneme /k/. Another example of a decision dictated by such an approach can be interpretedreductionsvoiced in the Russian language. At the LFS, the stench “resolves to those closest to the phonetic versatility of phonemic characters” : [ъ] и [ʌ] respectalophonesphonemic /a/

Functions of phonemes

The following functions of phonemes are seen as adherents of LFS [ :

    constitutive - the creation of the sound visualization of the significant units of the movement (from the side of the movement);

    recognition - the other side is constitutive, which appears when viewed from the side of the listener;

    disintegration - vikoristana of the uniqueness of the phonemic structure of the significant units of their disintegration; є inheritance of constitutive-cognitive functions.

The phoneme can also be combined with the interstitial function, which is observed in languages ​​in which phonemes are used inclusively between significant units

Phonemi - these are the independent sound units of a language, which serve to create word forms and differentiate their sound form. So, kozhna from the word forms vil, viv (past tense of the word visti), gol, zol (short form of the appendage evil, ed. plural part of the name), kel, movlyav, kreida (past tense of the word of the place) . |in| - |in'| - |r| - |z| - |to| - |m| - |m'| - |p| - |s'| - | w |; other and third phonemes of these word forms however: |pro| ta |l|. The word forms vil, val i viv (past tense of word viti) also differ by only one phoneme - the voice: |pro| - |a| - |i| (The remainder of this entry on the sheet is represented by the letter i). The difference in the composition of phonemes in word forms can be partial (as in pointed butts) and continuous, as, for example, in pairs of word forms stilets - budinok, rik - godina, etc.

Phoneme is a formalized sound unit of language, abstract from all possible sounds that appear in its place in the current language. For example, the vocal phoneme |a| varies depending on what kind of vowel sounds it has: for example, the word form [s'at'] (spelling sit, double incl. word sit) has a phoneme | a| stand between two soft voices and is represented by a sound, in its light, thrust in front and up.

Russian literary language has 5 voices and 37 voices phonemes.

Golosny are differentiated step by step, depending on the level of manifestation and the presence of labialization (loss) (Table 1).

Zhidni divided into sonorants and galas. Before sonorants we put |m|, |m'|, |n|, |n'|, |l|, |l'|, |р|, |р'|, |j|, other - galaslivi. The sonorities are considered to be part of the voice, adding minor noise. Guchni are considered to be involved in noise and voice (dzvinki) or only noise (deaf).

Like sonorants, and loud voices, they compete for the place of illumination (depending on which organs take part in articulation) and for the method of illumination (Table 2).

Table 2 System of vocal phonemes

Way to illuminate

Illuminate the place

Gubni

Perednyomovny

Serednyomovny

Zadnomovni

Lip-lip

Labial-dental

Dental

Anterior palatal

Middle palate

Rear

Zmychni

|p| |b| |p’| |p’|

|t| |d| |t’| |d'|

|to’| |g’|

|to| |g|

Zmichno-Shchlinni (Africati)

Shchіlinny

|f| |y| |f’| |in'|

|z| |z| |s’| |z'|

|w| |f| |w''| |w’’| |j|

Nosov

|m| |m’|

|n| |n’|

Bichni

|l| |l'|

Tremtyachi

|p| |p’|

Suitable also for hard and soft parts, dull and small parts.

Paired in hardness - softness (so they are separated from each other with this sign) and the following: |p| - |p'|, |b| - |b'|, |t| - |t'|, |d| - |d'|, |f| - |f'|, |v| - |в'|, |с|- |с'|, |з| - |z'|, |m| - |m'|, |n| -|n'|, |l| - |l'|, |r| - |р'|, |to| - |k’|, |g| - |g'|, |x| - |x'|. Unpaired for this sign of the year: |zh|, |w|, |ts| (solid), |zh''|, |w''|, |h'|, |j| (m'yaki).

They are paired in deafness - dzvinkosti and vowels: |p| - |b|, |p'| - |b'|, |t| - |d|, |t'| - |d'|, |f| - |v|, |f'| - |v'|, |z| - |z|, |s'| - |z'|, |w| - |zh|, |w’’| - |w’’|, |to| - |g|, |k’| - |g'|. Unpaired for this sign of the year: all sonorns (dzvinki), |ts|, |h|, |x|, |x'| (deaf).

Zgіdni |w|, |w|, |w''|, |w''| ta |h| form a group of sibilant phonemes, and the consonants |з|, |з|, |с'|, |з'| ta |ts| - Until a group of whistlers.

Zgіdni |w’’| (“sh dovga m’yaka”) ta |zh’’| (“zh dovga m’yaka”) for the change of the decision of the voices є dovgimi (suitable |zh’| is transmitted on the sheets of the day of the day: vezhki, ed, squeal; in the forms of the word dosh - to the day of the zaleznichny: dosh, dosh).

The position of maximum differentiation (strong position) for voiced phonemes is the position under the voice, and the position for voiceless phonemes is the position before the voiced ones. In other positions (weak) the phonemes are not differentiated. So it was in the silent warehouses, they sound, they don’t bother with phonemes |about| і |а|, and the positions after soft voices are also |е| (Div.§ 20, paragraph 1); at the end of word forms and before voiceless voiceless guys, the voiceless guys run with the voiceless ones, and before the voiceless voiceless guys, the deaf guys run with the voiceless ones (div.§ 20, paragraph 3), and, therefore, there is no difference in both cases; In a number of positions, there are no differences between the vowels in front of the voices, and the guys behind the hardness - softness (div.§ 20, paragraph 4). The set of phonemes that appear at the boundaries of each morph appears in those word forms, where they appear in a strong position, equal: [в^да] и [вуди], where the vocal phoneme of the root is in a strong position; [forest] and [forest] (date of the name of the forest), [lezu] (1 liter of one of the words to climb), where the kintseva root is in a strong position.

Note. Since in all possible word forms, where there is some morph, another phoneme in the morph is lost in a weak position, then such a sound unit (vowel and consonant) ishyperphoneme . For example, in the word dog first, the vocal phoneme is represented phonetically by the sound [l], and by a hyperphoneme, which acts in the position of indistinct vocal phonemes | ta |a|; the word other first has a subphonic phoneme, phonetically |f|, є hyperphonemic, while the position of non-distinct vowel phonemes |ф|, |ф’|, |в| ta |v'|.

The most important positional (phonetically conceived) implementations of phonemes.

    In non-naked warehouses there are voices |е|, |pro| ta |a| change (weaken) and do not vary for a number of positions (Table 3).

Here [іе] is the vocal front row, middle middle [i] and [e]; [^] - Voice of the middle-lower row, non-front row, non-labialization; [іє] - vocal in the front row, middle between [i] and [e]; [ъ] и [ь] - reduced vocalizations of the middle-lower row, unlabialized: [ъ] - vocalic of the non-front row, [ь] - front row. Apply:

(1) [e]tika - [ye]tyuchsky, [e]ksport - [ie]ksportyuruvati, [ó]sin - [^]senny, [ó]lovo - [^]lov'yany, [á]lt - [^]lit, [á]zbuka - [^]zbukovnik; (2) syn[e]tika - syn[ye]ty, ts[e]ny - ts[ye]ná, v[ó]dy - v[^]dá, d[a]r - d[^]rút , lit[á]r - lit[^]ry; (3) sh[e]est - sh[y]stú, sh[o]lk - sh[y]lká, zh[ó]ni - zh[y]ná, zh[á]bright - zh[^]rá , sh[a]r - sh[^]ri; (4) [l'e]s (lis) - [l'є]sa, [v'ó]dra (vidra) - [v'є]dro, [p'a]t (five) - [ p' ie]tak; (5) t[e]mp - t[a]mpovoy (special), malyuk[e]y - vklyadish[y], g[ó]rid - g[a]roda, ogirok[ó]m - hare [b]m, perelak [á]t - frightened [b]ny; (6) [b'e]reg (shore) - [b'']regovy, [t'ó]mniy (dark) - [t'b] a bit dark, [p'a]t - [p'b]tachók (piglet), [n'o]s (nis) - vi[n'y]si (vinesi), za[n'á]t (borrow) - zá[n't]ti (zaynyati), kalanch [e] (kalanche) - dach[b] (dacha), tsa[r'ó]m (king) - state[r'y]m, kalanch[á] - dach[b] (dacha), tsa[r 'á ] (king) - state [р'ъ] (sovereign) ([ъ] appears at home |or| at the end of words).

Table 3 Positional realizations of vocal phonemes

Golosna

On the cob of words

At the first forward warehouse

In other unused warehouses

after the guys hard acc. i c

after |zh|, |w|

after soft voices

after the firm voices

after soft voices

|e| |about| |a|

|e| |^| |^|

|e| |^| |^|

|e| |e| |^|

|іє| |іє| |іє|

|b| |b| |b|

|b| |b| |b| chi |b|

In this manner, all unvoiced positions (in addition to the position of the first pre-chewing language after |zh|, |sh|) have voices |about| ta |a| don't fight. This is called akannyam.

    After firm voices |i| changes to the sound of the middle row [and]: gra - under [and] grivat, in [and] gra; The idea is without [and] active.

    The double voices are deafened in positions at the ends of the word form and before voiceless vowels: du[b]i - du[p], ale[zh]ú - no[sh], la[v]ok (adv. pl. year. ) - lá[f]ka, po[d]kinuti - po[t]write.

Note. The word God has a voice |g| listen in [x]: bo[x].

Deaf guys voice in position before the ringing (crime [v], [v'] and sonorants) calling: ko[s']ut - ko[z']bá, o[t]lozh' - o[d]throws', [ from] the bridge - [from] the booth.

    Hard teeth sound |z|, |z| ta |n| at the position in front of the soft teeth (krim |l'|) soften: boro[z]dá - boro[z'd']út, fra[n]t - fra[n't']úkha, [s ]roll - [s'n']yat, romá[n]s - about romá[n's']e.

Firmly agreeable |n| before |w''|, |h| Let's remember: tabu[n] - tabu[n'sh'']ik, staká[n] - staká[n'h]ik.

The soft lips sound loudly before our ears, in addition to the soft lips and |j|, firmly: petó[m']ets - petó[m]tsi, r[b']út - kermo.

    Zgіdni |з|, |з'|, |з|, |з'| before the sibilants |sh|, |sh''|, |zh|, |h| be replaced by shiplyachi: [s]krepút - [w]shiti (sew), roz[z]lamati - ra[sh'']epút (splitting), razno[s']úst - razno[sh'']ik (retailer ), [z kim; [w'] chim; [with] love; [f] I'm sorry.

    In the old days, days of good times and days are not indicated: joy - joyful (joyful), star - stary (staring), zapizna - po[z'n']y (late).

Doesn't seem like it's also suitable |j| in position behind the voice before |i| and on the cob of the word: glue, k[l'éju] (glue) - k[l'éi]t (glue), str[уjá] (strumen) - str[uú], bіy - b[^і] (fights ); (їй - dat. p. od. p. of the borrower won) - [i] m (d. p. plural p.).

From the Saussurean style of “longue” and “parole”, Trubetskoy N.S. creates his own phonological theory, which is based on the field of science about sounds, phonology and phonetics: as the area of ​​​​interpretation of sounds from a physiological-acoustic point of view. Phonology, the subject of which is not sounds, but units of sound mode-phonemes. Phonetics is related to the language as well as to the system. According to Trubetskoy, phonetics and phonology are two independent disciplines: phonetics, about the sounds of language, and phonology, about the sounds.

To the general knowledge of phonetics, according to Trubetskoy, this is a response to the question: How is one or another sound identified?

Phonetics is the science of the material background (sounds) of human language. And since, in the author’s opinion, there are two sciences about the sounds of different objects of learning: specific movable acts in phonetics and a language system in phonology, then different methods of tracking may be difficult to reach them. For the development of phonetics, it was necessary to use the purely physical methods of the natural sciences, and for the development of phonology - the scientific linguistic methods.

With the established concept of phonemes – the main phonological unit – N.S. Trubetskoy puts the sensory-responsive function in the foreground. Thus, sounds, which are the subject of phonetics research, have a large number of acoustic and articulatory signs. But for the phonologist, the greater sign is absolutely non-network, and the fragments of stink do not function as disjunctive signs of words. The phonologist is guilty of respecting those who store sound as a song function in the language system. In my opinion, the fragments of sounds may have a separate function and may have significance, they must be seen as how the system is organized, and how the ordering of the structure can be compared with the grammatical system.

From the perspective of the Prazka school, phonemes are truly invisible. Being a scientific abstraction, phonemes are realized in different shades and variants that are identified. However, the phoneme itself, as an abstract unit, is truly invisible. Trubetskoy writes: specific sounds, one senses in language, are rather the material symbols of phonemes... The sounds are not at all the phonemes themselves, since the phoneme is impossible to replace, every phonologically non-networked rice, so there is little inevitability with the sound (Amirova T.A. , 2006).

The most comprehensive and systematic views of representatives of the Prasian school in the field of phonology are presented in the work of N.S. Trubetskoy “Fundamentals of Phonology”, which is the first part of the all-pervasive work conceived by the author.

In 1921 Trubetskoy was the first in the history of Slavic studies by introducing the periodization of the Slavic legal history, dividing it into several periods. Before the first period, there was an era of disintegration of the Indian European government and the appearance of a singing group of “proto-Slavic” speakers in its dialects, explaining that “in this era, proto-Slavic phenomena are increasingly expanding to a number of other Indo-European dialects, especially often to the Pro-Baltic one, in total . Another period can be characterized as the era of renewed unity of the “Gal-Slavic government”, which has been completely strengthened by other parts of Indian European dialects, which is not small with these dialects of everyday further changes and at the same time dialectal differentiation has been reduced. Until the third period, the era of the beginnings of dialectal disarray should begin, when in a row from the hidden phenomena that consume all the Orthodox language, local phenomena also appeared that were spreading more and more on the borders of the group of dialects, and even more but they didn’t care about the hiding places. In addition, during this period, the dialectical groups themselves have not yet managed to establish one after another the residual cellular connections (for example, the Western Slovenian group is still not fully awake, and in its place there are two groups - Itsko-Lekhitska, which is more difficult to gathering, and Czechoslovakian, craving for the day). The fourth period is the era of the end of dialectal fragmentation, when hidden phenomena emerge much earlier, lower ones are dialectical (dialectical), and groups of dialects appear more localized and differentiated .

N.S. Trubetskoy was one of the first to emphasize the need for a three-fold approach to the equalization of mov: the first - historical-genetic, the second - areal-historical (local groups, local zones), the third typological - and showing x stagnation on a number of their work, among which the final work is seen zalal phonological typology This galusi, in addition to rich universals (they were later studied by J. Greenberg and others), N.S. Trubetskoy revealed a low number of private, local patterns. Thus, the same article about the Mordovian and Russian phoneme systems demonstrates an important phonological principle, therefore the similarity of the inventory of phonemes does not determine the similarity of their phonological functions and combinatorial capabilities. The rest in the Mordovian language are completely different from the Russian language.

Although the interests of the young Trubetskoy lay in the area of ​​ethnography, folklore and the origins of the Ural, “Arctic” and especially early Caucasian languages. Vin, with autobiographical notes, decided to choose Indian European Studies as a university subject, as a result of which the thread of cultural knowledge was well broken down. After taking up the philosophical department and the branch of modern European literature, having tried rock (since 1909/10), N. S. Trubetskoy began to work on the newly created branch of literature intelligible knowledge (in Sanskrit and Avestan).

At the same time, we understand phonology, as “the knowledge about the sounds of the language, zagalnyh and stagnant in the swedom of their noses,” and phonetics, as the knowledge about the private manifestation of the sounds of the language in the language, which may have a one-act character.

Trubetskoy talk about the interconnections of both of these components, because without specific movnyh assets buv mov. He sees the very act of speech as establishing a connection between Saussyurian, which means and signifies.

Phonology, as science understands what it means in language, is that due to the number of elements, the essence of which is that stench, differentiating from each other according to sound manifestations, has a sensory-discriminating function. And also food about those, what is the relationship of dissociative elements and what are the rules of stench to be followed by words, words, etc. Most of the sign of the sound itself is not essential for the phonologist, because they do not function as sensory signs. Tobto. This is the science of the language system, which lies at the basis of all financial assets.

Phonetics examines physical, articulatory, one-act entities. The methods of natural sciences are most suitable for it. For her, the main thing is nutrition: How the sound is detected, what organs are in their function. Tobto. This is a science about the material background of the sounds of human language.

It should be noted that not all representatives of the Prague linguistic school shared the same idea about the mutuality of these two disciplines. N.B. Trnka takes into account that “the phonetician transmits to the system and monitors individual actualization, the phonologist tracks that the individual promotion has functional and establishes the elements, upgrading the current installation to a whole washing system.” Thus, the main importance of phonology and phonetics for Trnka will be different directions of their investigation.

Turning to the top of this problem in “Fundamentals of Phonology”, it should be said that Trubetskoy identifies three aspects of sound: “viraz”, “zverennya”, “povidomlenya”. And to the sphere of phonology we only need to bring the third, representative one. It is divided into three parts, the subject of which is: culminating the function of the language (which indicates how many units, then the word will be located in the river), delimitative function (which indicates between two units: adjuncts, words, morphemes) and distinctive or else sensory-perceptive, which appear in the explicative aspect of language, the most important and necessary for phonology, Trubetskoy recognizes the sensory-responsive function, which leads to a special section.

The main concepts for sensory perception in Trubetskoy are the concept of opposition - the presence of a semantic sign. Through the phonological opposition, the concept of a phonological unit (“a member of a phonological opposition”) is defined, which is its basis for a significant phoneme (“the shortest phonological unit, it is impossible to decompose any longer From the looks of it, this is a movie").

The main internal function of phonemes is their semantic function. The word is understood as a structure, as it is known by hearing and perceived. Phoneme is a sensory sign of a structure. Sensation is revealed through the totality of these signs, which correspond to a given sound illumination.

Trubetskoy introduced the concept of phonemic invariance. Tobto. The second sound is possible as one of the options for the implementation of phonemes, because In addition to sugar-dissolving agents, there are also signs that are not the same. In this way, a phoneme can be realized in various sound manifestations.

1) In language, two sounds in the same position can replace one another, and in this case the semantic function of the word becomes unchanged, while the two sounds are variants of the same phoneme.

2) And just like when you replace the sounds of the sense word at one position, all sounds are variants of the same phonemes.

3) Since two acoustically opposed sounds never occur in the same position, they are combinatorial variants of the same phoneme.

4) As two acoustically opposed sounds never converge in the same position, but can follow one after another, as members of sound synergy. In this situation, if one of these sounds can be heard without the other, then they are not variants of the same phonemes.

The 3rd and 4th rules that arise in cases where there are no sounds in one form may relate to the problem of identifying phonemes, then. Before powering up, low mutually exclusive sounds are produced for one invariant. Thus, a purely phonetic criterion is the best choice for classifying different sounds into one phoneme. Tobto. The interconnections of these sciences are manifested.

In order to establish a new stock of phonemes for a given language, it is necessary to distinguish both the phoneme from the phonetic variants, and the phoneme from the combined phonemes, then. It provides a fragment of sound stream with the implementation of one or two phonemes (syntagmatic identification). Trubetskoy formulated the rules of monophonematicity and polyphonematicity. The first three are phonetic changes for the monophonemic interpretation of a sound clip. The sound of a single phoneme is not like this:

1) its main parts are not distributed behind two warehouses;

2) it settles down at the sight of one articulatory arm;

3) this triviality is taken from the triviality of other phonemes of a given language.

These days describe the phonological minds of the single-phonemic significance of sound production (potentially single-phonemic sound complexes are considered to be actually single-phonemic, since they are treated as simple phonemes, so they become more specific in positions, which in other cases are not allowed alone and phonemes) and the rich phonemic significance of a simple sound.

A very important place in Trubetskoy’s phonological system is occupied by its classification in opposition. This was the first evidence of such classifications. Criteria for the classification of phonological compositions of boules:

1) it is placed before the entire opposition system;

2) relations between members of the opposition;

3) obligations of their separate assignments.

According to the first criterion, the opposition is divided at its core by its “dimensionality” (qualitative criterion) and by its specificity (quantitative criterion).

In terms of qualitative relations throughout the system of opposition, phonological representations are divided into simultaneous (as the totality of signs that are powerful in both members of the opposition does not have power more than any other member of the system) and richly dimensional ( how the “basis for equalization” of two members of the opposition expands to other members of the same system) . Quantitatively, the oppositions are divided into isolation (the members of the opposition are no longer more closely related to each other) and proportional (the positions between the members are also based on the relationship and members of other oppositions).

Let us discuss between members of the opposition:
Private oppositions: one member of the opposition is characterized by presence, and the other – by the presence of signs: [d] – [n] – however, in addition to nasality.

Gradual - the sign is graduated: the step will rise from the vocal ones.
Equivalent (equivalent) skins from members of the opposition are endowed with an independent sign: [p] - [w] - one is labio-labial, the other is labio-dental.
Constant and neutralized opposition: [deaf] - [dink] in Russian - the opposition that is neutralized (obviously deafened - ringing), and in German and English the opposition is constant i.
As a special branch of the “phonology of the word”, the Praska linguistic school sees morphonology, the object of study of which is the phonological structure of morphemes, as well as combinatorial sound modifications that are influenced by morphemes in In many cases, that sound inscription, which connotes the morpheme function.

In order to describe the synchronic description of phonemes, the Pragues emphasized the fundamentals of diachronic phonology, based on the principles:

1) any change in phonemes cannot be accepted without modification to the system;

2) skin change in the phonological system is purely direct.

In this way, de Saussure’s thesis about the inconsistency of the transition between synchrony and diachrony was spelled out.

I. Significance of phonology.

Phonology- A section of mental awareness that describes the structure of the sound mode of the language and the functioning of sounds in the brain system. The main unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of investigation is pronunciation ( opposition) phonemes that simultaneously create the phonological system of the language.

Instead of phonology, phonetics emphasizes the physical aspect of language: articulation, the acoustic power of sounds, and their appeal to the ear (perceptual phonetics).

The creator of modern phonology is considered to be the teachings of the Polish movement, Ivan (Jan) Oleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, who worked in Russia. Significant contributions to the developments of phonology were also made by Mikola Sergiyovich Trubetskoy, Roman Yosipovich Yakobson, Lev Volodimirovich Shcherba, Noam Chomsky, Morris Halle.

II . Basic concepts of phonology

The basic concept of phonology is phoneme, A minimal amount of water that primarily has an oil-digesting function. Having shown phonemes in the movie - the background, a specific section of the verse, what to sound, what is volodya with singing acoustic powers. The number of phonemes is potentially infinite, however, in the skin language the divisions into different phonemes depend on the structure of the skin phonological set. Phonemes that overlap one phoneme are called alophones.

The key role of phonology can also be understood opposition(Opposition). Two units are respected by their names, as they are called minimum bets, then there are bets that do not conflict with anything other than these two units (for example, in Russian: tom - budinok - com - rum - som - nom - scrap). If two backgrounds enter into such an opposition, the stench lies down to different phonemes. After all, there are two backgrounds in additional division, so that they do not converge in the same context - but it is not necessary (or sufficient) to classify them into one phoneme. Thus, in Russian language there is no overlap in the same context [a] (as in the word uterus) i [ä] (as in the word m'yat): the first sound appears only between hard voices (and/or voices), the other - only between two soft voices. In this way, they can be placed up to one phoneme and be alophone (with the addition of other necessary minds). By the way, the German language has similar sounds in the percussive structure: Apfel"apple" Äpfel“apple”, and the stench reaches different phonemes.

Phonological system of language- The totality of its phonemes, connected by song lines, is internally organized.

Proposed phonemes are created in opposition (for deafness/voice of phonemes<п> – <б>or the hardness/softness of phonemes<с> – <с’>).

Porivnyannya Phonemes in positions are based on their respective signs - differential and integral.

Integral phoneme signs establish the basis of opposition, and differential form oppositions, for example, for phonemes<т>і<д>integral signs (that is, of both phonemes) are bulge, prelingual, hardness, and differential (that is, disjunctive) are deafness (for<т>) that jingle (for<д>).

Phoney– specific instances of the implementation of phonemes (and their variants), instances of sounds that exist in millions and billions of thousands and millions of speakers of the language.

In articulatory-acoustic terms background, then. representative of phonemes in potoci language, not the vime, the nіdchi vid of the Susidny tla, the representation of the INSHOM Fonemi INODIL OF OTHISTKOVO, LOVE ONE ONE ONE ONE LIKE, YAK NOT KNOW MOVI, NOT ZDATNIA ROZRITITIES IS ROSOMITIA.

III. Basic phonological schools:

1. Leningradska

The founder - academician Lev Volodimirovich Shcherba - served in the first half of the 20th century. In his studies, they were oriented towards the data of foreign languages, the formulation of the correct view.

The school comes out of the understanding of phonemes as a sound unit from the sensory-perceptive function. Vikoristova as a criterion for distinguishing phonemes from the criterion of phonetic similarity (identity).

Most of the foreign languages ​​in their phonetic part have a vikoryst concept and terminology, which was explained by Shcherba. The phonological theory of Shcherby itself was most beautifully presented in his friend “Phonetics of French language”. In the past, these same concepts have been pursued by researchers who are engaged in instrumental development of audio language and the design of automatic language recognition systems.

2. Moskovska

Let us present the representative of this school as Alexander Oleksandrovich Reformatsky. The main robots, which formulate their views directly, are dedicated to the description of the native (Russian) language. Initially, the phonological school viewed its actions as a single true belief in the sound mode of language.

Over time, however, the trend of universal discussion of problems and the synthesis of phonological theories has taken hold.

I will first try this synthesis by working with one of the founders of the IMF, Ruben Ivanovich Avanesov. We have introduced the concept of “weak phonemes”, which, in order of “strong” ones, are included in the warehouse of global signs.

Avanesov's weak phoneme– this is a set of differential signs that are necessary to indicate the importance of the sound at this position. The stinks are associated with the commands of the concert organs and promotions in order to create a different acoustic effect.

3. American school

Vaughn developed to a great extent. XX century as a school descriptive phonology, according to the historical descriptions of American Indians. Their concept was close to the views of the Leningrad phonological school. Zokrema, the American scientists have most clearly formulated the procedure for dividing the flow of motion into the background of the flow of motion.

At the end of the war, with the influx of successes in computer technology, American linguists first directly focused on the technical modeling of modern data. The pioneer of this work was also from Russia (or from Poland) Naum Chomsky.

These robots fell asleep directly, which is called generative linguistics. This command is based on a formal model (automatic machine) of the selection of the correct expressions of a specific language.

The phonological part of the generative theory was immediately followed by another Russian, Roman Yosipovich Yakobson, who, in connection with the Second World War, emigrated from Prague (he became a prominent member of the Prague School) to America. Describing the generation (verification) of language, generative phonology naturally comes from a concept close to the Moscow phonological school.

The essence of the theory is that physical signs are transformed by subsequent transformations of physical rules from the internal manifestations of phonemes of speech to the surface manifestations of physical sound types. Using this terminology, we can call the phonemes of language as deep phonemes, and the phonemes of language as surface phonemes.

(Creations based on the abstract of Vlasova Katerina)

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