Functions, Budova, Chemistry Warehouse and Growing Clinton Warehouse. Lectures for students

Zrilikh, a little bit of bagatosharovi, in the balls they fabrized cellulose orintovani in a way, and a few of them can also be used. Razvichy describe the first, second and third class shells. When the clitin grows out of the range of chromosomes in the equatorial area of ​​clitin, there is a purchase of other membrane bulbs, as in the central part of the clitin they are repaired one by one. The whole process of evil of other vacuoles goes from the center of the cell to the periphery and to the quiet, as long as the membrane bulb does not appear between itself and through the membrane of the cell surface of the cell. so pretend klinna plativka... At the central part of the embroidery, the amorphous speech is not matched, and the bulbs get angry. It has been reported that the primary vacuoles resemble the membranes of the Golgi apparatus. Along the periphery of the clitinous plate, when cautious in the polarized light, there will appear more or less under the intervening process, and in the whole process of growing the organic fibrillated cellulose will appear. In such a rank, the growth-resistant plate is stored as three balls: the central one is the middle plate, which is stored only from the amorphous matrix, and the two peripheral ones are the primary shell, which is to put hemicellulose and cellulose fibrils. Even though the middle plate is a product of the activity of another species, then the primary shell pretends to be able to see hemi-cellulose and fibril cellulose with two new cells. І all further away the increase in the activity of the two daughters (from the other sides I will see the plastic speeches of the new ones, the new ones) So it’s from the very cob, the vision of the words to the matrix is ​​seen to go to the plasma membrane of the bulbs to the Golgi apparatus, the zlitta їkh from the membrane and vivilnenya їkh instead of between the cytoplasms. Immediately, the pose of a cell on the plasma membrane and the synthesis and polymerization of cellulose fibrils. This is how it is to pretend second klinna shell... The sufficient accuracy of the value and the zoom of the first shell is of secondary importance, since the stench of making up the decalcoma with intermediate balls. The main masu finished her form culture become a second shell. Vona nadaє klinі її residual form. For a couple of children on two daughters, the growth of new clients, the growth of new clients and changes in the form; klіtini often play for dinner. One hour, one can see the growth of the clitinous shell and the overloading of the internal structure. When utvorennі pervinnoї klіtinnoї Ilya Obolonkov in її skladі shte little pulp fіbril, i stink roztashovuyutsya bіlsh-Mensch perpendicular maybutnoї pozdovzhnoї osі klіtini, pіznіshe in perіod roztyaguvannya (podovzhennya klіtini for rakhunok zrostannya vacuoles in tsitoplazmі) orієntatsіya Tsikh transversely spryamovanih fіbril pіddaєtsya Passive Change log: fіbrili repair the razmіschuvatisya pіd with a straight cut one to one, and in the kintsev pіdstyuyuyuyutsya knotted more-mensh parallel to the later axis of the clitini. Gradually, the process goes: in the old balls (closer to the center of the shell), they are made to passively, and the insertion of new ones near the inner balls (closest to the membrane of the clinker) is similar to the cob shell to the design plan. During the whole process, the possibility of cutting is probably one of one, and the overloading of the reinforcement of the casing can be made through the gelatinous mill of the components of the matrix. Nadal, when substituted in the matrix, hemicellulosis on the lignin decay of fibrils decreases sharply, the shell grows shy, lignification appears. Often the second shell appears tretiny shell The yak can see the dry excess of the yak by degenerating the ball with its cytoplasm. It means that, when the clitin roslin is distant, the primordial shell is not formed in all types of the presetting of the clitin plate.

42. Budova and the power of the cells of the growing cells and bacteria

The growth of the roslin is shaped for the participation of the plasma membrane and the extracellular (posaklitinnym) large-scale apprehensions, who seize the surface of the cell, the servicemen as the biological skeleton of the roslin cell. Klіtinna stіnka consists of two components: an amorphous plastic gel-like matrix (base) with a high volume of water and support fibrillar system. Often, for the sake of power, rigidity, insensitivity and indifference. Before the storehouse of shells, additional polymeric speech and salt are included. In the chemically derived head, the components of the roslin shells are carried to the structural polysaccharides. Polysaccharides enter the storehouse for the matrix of shells, which can be found in concentrated meadows, hemicellulosis and pectin. Hemicellulosis is a polymeric lancet, which is stored in hexoses (glucose, manose, galactose and in.), Pentose (xylose, arabinose) and uronic acids (glucuronic and galacturonic acids). The components of hemicelluloses can be found among themselves in different types of hemicelluloses, as well as in various combinations. Lantsyugi of hemicellulose molecules DO NOT crystallize and do not accept elementary fibrils. Through the presence of polar groups of uronic acids, the stench is strongly hydrated. Pectin orechovini are polymeri methyl-D-glucuronate. The matrix is ​​a plastic pulp, strengthened by fibrils. The fibrous components of the clinker shells are stored in cellulose, Linear, non-branching glucose polymer. The molecular weight of cellulose varies from 5 * 104 to 5 * 105, which results in 300 - 3000 glucose surpluses. Such linear cellulose molecules can be drawn into bundles of fibers. In the case of cellulose filaments, they are made of fibrils, which are stored in submicroscopic microfibrils with a thickness of up to 25 nm, which in their turn are stored in free-standing parallel lances of cellulose molecules. Cultivation of cellulose to matrices (hemicellulose) can be even more advantageous in children. After 60% of the dry vagi of the primary membranes become їх matrix and close to 30% of the attack on the skeletal tongue - cellulose. In sirikh clinny shells, all the water is tied to hemi-celluloses, so the main speech in the swollen stanza reaches 80% of the gray vagi of all shells, to which all the water is made up to 12%. At a small butt, hairs of the bavovnik, the cellulose component becomes 90%, in the wood of cellulose in the warehouse 50% of the components of the cellulite. Along with cellulose, hemicellulosis and pectin, before the warehouse of cinnamon sheaths, add additional components, which give them special power. So, incrustation (included in the middle) shell with lignin (polymer of coniferous alcohol) to produce lignification of clinny stinks, growing of their meat. Lignin is substituted in such shells of plastic speech for the matrix and the role of the main speech, which is volodya with a high quality. Often, the matrix is ​​reinforced with mineral streams (SiO2, CaCO3 and in.). On the surfaces of the cinnamon sheath, there can be accumulated crusty words, for example cutin and suberin, to produce corky cinnamon. At the cells of the epidermis, on the surface of the cells of the shells, a whisk is deposited, which creates a water-tight ball, which overflows into the water.

44. Skeletal rokhovy apparatus of klitini.

The cells have a lot of ruins: chromosomes collapse to the poles of the cell for an hour mitosis, vacuoles of cell organelles move, the cell surface collapses. In addition, in cells of roslin and tvarin, cytoplasm strumis (for example, in roslinnykh cells for amoebi). Moreover, some cells (free-living single-cell organisms or specific types of cells in large-scale food organisms) may be actively changing, more and more. Deyakіkіkіtiny mayut special structures, wії і jiguties, which allow them to either change themselves, or change the new generation. Nareshty, in many species of organisms є specialization of cells, the type of robot, which allows the virality of the development of organisms, around these parts and the whole organism. It is known that in the basis of all the numerical rocket reactions lie the backward molecular mechanisms, In addition, it has been shown that the manifestation of any roach apparatus is guilty of evolving and structurally tying up during the summer carnage. To that one can speak (describe and vivchati) about the support-arm system of the clitin. Until we completely decay the components of the cells, the microtubules are transferred to the microtubules. To support or skeletal internal structures, carry microfibrils and microtubules.

Div. Scrolls 45-55.

51. Industrial flame.

Industrial flames, or microfibres, may be close to 10Nm, which is also called 10Nm (or 100 A0) filaments. Stink pick up in bunches, roztasovanі head rank along the periphery of the cell, and in the central cells of the cell near the nucleus (endoplasma). Behind the chemistry nature - tse stringy classes of bilkiv. So, in the epithelial cells of the 10-nm flame, it is represented by the keratan (tonofilenti) cells. wagon 42 - 70 yew., in mesenchymal cells (cells with a full tissue, including fibroblasts) - Vimenin (mol. structure of a-actinina of Z-disks; in the nerve cells - chains of neurofibrils (mol. Wag 210, 160, 68 yew). Also described are the main industrial flames. Cycles can be copolymerised. Thus, industrial fibroblasts replace vimentin and desmin, epithelial - keratin and vimentin. It is known that in one type of cells there can be two kinds of industrial filaments. For example, in some culture clientele, fabrics can be nudged around the nucleus and keratin flames can be drawn instantly on the sides, before being applied.

Ingibitories of polymerization of cich bilks are not of the kind that accelerate the development of their functional roles. Vvazhaєtsya, scho industrial flames are the main rank of the mechanical, cyst function, being the skeletal devices of the middle class. The price of evidence is supported by the fact that in the bagatokh cells of the food, especially of the crooked, industrial flames, they set up bundles of tonofibrils (or tonofilaments). Tonofibrilli give such clients great springiness and rigidity. The smell of numerical desmosomes on the surface of the plasma membrane і, efficiently, є skeletal structures, so that the mechanical function of the cells is not guaranteed, is gradually given to the great deformable new options. The system of intermediate filaments collapses so dynamically, like micro-tubes and micro-tubes. So, when fibroblasts are spread on the slope of the stench, a sprinkle of grains in the perinuclear zone will soon appear on the periphery of the clitin. When you go to the klitini kolchitsin, where the microtubules are wicked, the industrial picks are picked up in the eggs, and the nucleus of the klitini is tasted. Cats with 30-nm filaments are often found in normal minds. When the cells are diluted, they will fall into two similar structures, as in the daughter cells, the core will be refined again. Try to be careful not to think so that the industrial flames can take part in the anchoring of the nucleus in the cytoplasm community.

55. Budova dzhgutikiv bacteriy

The main form of ruku bakterіy is behind the additional dzhgut. Bacterium jugs are principally classified from jgutics and viyok eukaritiv. For a number of jgutics, there are: monotrichs - with one jigutik, polytrikhs - with a bunch of jgutics, peritrichi - with no jiguties in small dilenks of the surface. Bacterium jiggles may be even more folding budov; stinks are stored, from three main parts: zovnishnya dovga hvilyasta thread (vasne dzhgutik), slack, basal tilce. The flagellar thread is prompted from the flagellar. Yogo molecular weight is accumulated in the fallow of the species of bacteria (40 - 60 thousand). Globular subunits of flagelin polymerize in spirally twisted filaments so that a tubular structure (not plutaty with microtubules of eucarotes!) Is established with a diameter of 12 - 25 nm, empty in the middle. Flazhelinu is not ready to ruin. The stench can spontaneously polymerize into threads with a permanent crock of chvili, characteristic of the skin type. In living bacterial cells, the growth of jgutik is seen at the distal end; However, the transport will go through the empty middle of the jgut. Close to the surface of flagellate filaments, flagellas, go to a wider distance, the so-called stick. The winners are close to 45 nm and will be stored from the bin. The bacterial basal cell is not a small one with the basal cell of the eukaryotic cell. It will be stored with a haircut, tied with a hook, and chotiroh dough. The two upper rings, evident in gram-negative bacteria, are localized in the cells: one ring is buried in the lipopolysaccharide membrane, the other in the mureinovium (peptidoglycan) ball. Two of the largest rings are localized in the plasma membrane of the cellini. In basal gram-positive bacteria there are only two lower rings tied with a membrane. Release the flagellar thread with a mechanical path and wicker through the lysis of bacterial cells, far into the distance to see the whips and bacterial basal cells. The price is a bilk structure, the yak includes about 12 new bricks. Zakryplyuyuchi bacterias for additional antibodies on the donor, the precursors fostered the wrapping of the bacterium. Otzhe, the mechanism of the ruchus of the dwarf polyagus is wrapped in the bacterial basal tilts around its axis. At the same time, the flagellar thread describes a cone-like figurine. It is shown that the numerical mutations in the flag (the change of the twig of the thread, "curl" and іn.) Are not recognized on the health of the clitin before the ruch. Mutations in the basal component cells are often produced to the point of loss. Rukh of bacterial juguties does not accumulate in ATP, but increases potential growth on the surface of the plasma membrane. The form of ruchus, as it grows in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and in some gram-positive bacteria, is based on the substrate. Its mechanism is obscure, in cich bacteria to cich pir no special organelles are known.

For the localization of the localization of the synthesis of biopolymers, for the purpose of assigning the nobles, the transfer of speech to the cells, for the prevention of migration, or for the sake of the miracle, the method is widely used. autoradiography- restoration of speeches, marked by isotopes. In the case of autoradiographic preliminaries, a monomer of one macromolecular compound (for example, an amino acid or a nucleotide), one of the atoms of a substitution with a radioactive isotope, is introduced into the middle. For example, replace 12C injections with a 14C atom, and replace water with tritium 3H and in. In the process of synthesis, a monomer molecule is included in the biopolymer. Restruvate the presence in the room is possible by means of a photoemulsion. If the cells are in the ball, or on the spot, cover the photoemulsion, then after a ten hour, as a result of the drop in the isotope of the B-particle, it spreads chaotically in different strands, to be consumed in the zone of the sensitive photo layer and to activate the middle grains of bromine. There will be more exposure hour, that is, the contact of such a small cell with a photoemulsion, more AgBr grains will be assigned. For an exporation of the requirement, develop a preparation, at the same time, the renewal of the mixture of alcohol in high-grade granules occurs, and during the fixation of non-mixed granules of AgBr, it is discharged. As a result of the mass of granules, as they cried the object, they will lose those, as they will become active in viprominuvannyam. Peering through the microscope of such preparations, on top of which a ball of photoemulsion is applied, the glimpse of the localization of grains of the medium, as it grows apart in a way, develops the word.

The whole method of measuring: the accuracy of the deposit will be based on the size of the AgBr grain and on the energy of the particle. As the charge is larger, the less accurate it is possible to get a better understanding of the isotope. First of all, there is the energy of the particles and before the tests, there is activation of the AgBr grains. To that for the autoradiography method, special micro-grained photoemulsions (0.2-0.3 microns) and isotopes with little energy In particles, the main type is isotope water, tritium 3H. Tritin can be labeled as monomers of biological macromolecules: nucleotides, amino acids, zucru, fatty acids. Victory is also available for autoradiographic monitoring of hormones, antibiotics, ingibitoria and in. Autoradiographic can not be found in water spoluca, since K. The second method of interrogation is to reach the top of the concentration of these rechovins, since K. At a low concentration, an hour of exposure will take longer, with a great growth it is not safe to show a background of AgBr granules for a rash of cosmic congestion.

The method of autoradiography is one of the main methods, which allows the development of dynamics, synthetic processes, and the intensity in small cells on one and the same preparation. So, for example, using an additional method in the case of vicious small monomers of RNA, it was shown that all RNA is synthesized only in the interphase nuclei, and the manifestation of cytoplasmic RNA is the result of migration of synthesized molecules from the nucleus.

61. Vacuolar system

As a matter of fact, the cytoplasm itself is borne out of the midst of the colonies by the plasmatic membrane, it is not uniform in its structure. In these areas, the structureless protoplasms develop flexible membrane and non-membrane components. Before non-membrane components, microtubules and organelles are induced from them, and, in addition, microtubules and microbriles. Membrane structures of cytoplasms are okremimy or linked one to one type, instead of which are adhered to by membranes, both from the hyaloplasm and from the plasma membrane. Cytoplasmic membranous structures may have their own power in the place of the warehouse, by the powers and functions of the hyaloplasms. Thus, the membranous elements of the cytoplasm are closed, close to the area (often used for, I describe the term "compartment" - compartment), which is a regular rank in the hyaloplasm. The cytoplasmic membrane structures can be divided into two groups. One of them is the vacuolar system. Before it, endoplasmic reticulum, granular and smooth, and small vacuoles, occurring from the reticulum (vacuoles of tall cells, microcrystals, spherosomes, etc.) can be seen. In addition, it is necessary to bring the vacuolar complex to the Golgi and lizosomy apparatus to the whole system. All representatives of the vacuolar membrane systems are characterized by the presence of a single membrane. Up to the second group of membrane components in the cytoplasm, two membrane organelles are introduced - mitochondria and plastidia. At the same time, the stench may be closed and independent, as it does not go one into one, the outer and inner membranes. As a result of the two-membrane nuclear envelope, the latter membrane can pass into the membranes of the EPR by cytoplasm. Unimportant to the warehouse of the vacuolar system and enter into the morphological and functional components, it is a single whole. Okremi її elements show the different functions, like bi-add and sound one one.

50. Microtubules of interphase cells, budova and functions.

Microtubules are filamentous non-branching structures that are stored from white-tubules and associated with them. Tubulin, when polymerizing, will create empty tubes. Dovzhina of microtubules can reach decilcoch microns. Found microtubules are deployed in the warehouse of the axoneme of sperm tails. Microtubules begin to grow in the cytoplasm of interphase clitins, and they grow loose one at a time, either in small, fluffy bundles, or at the vigellas of splinter-packed microtubules in the centrioles, basal cells, in the branches and jiguties.

Microtubules are empty cylinders, the walls of which are stored from a polymerized tube of tubule. During polymerization of the molecule, the tubule is set up 13 later protofilments, which curl up into an empty tube. The diameter of the globule of the tubulin monomer is 5 nm. About the production of microtubules. A tubulin molecule is stored in 2 subunits a - і b-tubulin.

The microtubule is very fast-growing plus-fin and generally growing minus-fin. With a sufficient concentration of polymerization, polymerization occurs spontaneously, without ATP vitratic, and even with hydrolysis of one GTP molecule.

Microtubules are dynamic structures, which can be polymerized and disassembled quickly.

In warehouses of visible microtubules, additional bottles appear with them, so called MAP - bottles (for example, Tau-bottles). Cycles stabilize microtubules, accelerate the process of polymerization of tubules. The cytoskeleton is connected to the unmeasured tubules and the cytoskeleton is connected to the cytoskeleton.

The average hour of microtubule production becomes only 5 chilines.

via

It folds from the basal body and axoneme, which is surrounded in the cytoplasm, under the plasma membrane.

The axoneme is stored in 9 doublets of microtubules, which have been rosetted according to the number of cola, to form the final wall of the axoneme's cylinder, and two central microtubules. In doublets of microtubules, A-microtubules grow out, but they are stored in 13 subunits and B- in microtubules, consisting of 11 subunits of A-microtubules, which carry two different handles on their own, turning up to B-microtubules of the oak tree. From the A-microtubule to the center of the axons enter the spoke, then end with the head on the central sleeve, on the central vacuole.

Basalt is stored in 9 triplets, there are knitting needles and a sleeve.

microtubules CYTOPLASMI

1.skeletal

2.Rukhova

Polymerization of microtubules (nucleation) is introduced into the COMT (ring the centrosome). Microtubules grow out of TSOMT plus-knots. Grown microtubules draw in a ring from the cell center. Microtubules form an elastic, rigid cell skeleton. Microtubules take part in the processes of growth of cells, changing the cytoplasm, overburdening in peripheral balls. Microtubules play an important role in internal transport, assigning their rosters directly to the rearrangement of structures. At the same time, the role of kinesin and dynein is played. Kinesin in association with microtubules swelling ATP-aznu activity. With the hydrolysis of ATP, the conformation of the kinesin molecule changes and the particle is displaced in a straight line up to + kint (dynein - minus kinets).

47. Mikrofilamenti.

Actinic microorganisms are developed in all classrooms of economies. Especially the stench in high-specialty meat fibers in cells, showing the function of fast meat fibers. Actinic flames also enter the warehouse of special client components such as microvilli, stitching of epithelial cells, to the warehouse of ceremonial sensitive clitins. Actin microorganisms fix the bundles in the cytoplasm of the rukhomikh klitin zhivy-x and the ball on the plasma membrane is a cortical ball. In baguchium growing cells and cells of lower fungi, the stench grows in the balls and collapses with cytoplasms.

The main block of microfilaments is actin. Tsey block is a molecular weight close to 42 yew. In monomeric form, globules (G-actin) can be seen in monomeric form. The actinic microfilments of the polarities are behind their own authorities. With a sufficient concentration of G-actin, it will begin to polymerize. With such a spontaneous polymerization of the actin on the microfilament threads, one of the filaments quickly clings to the G-actin (+ microfilament microfilament); If the concentration of G is an actin of lack, then we got the idea of ​​F-actin and fix it. At the point of sale, the so-called critical concentration of G-actin is found, a dynamic rate of change between polymerization and depolymerization is established, as a result of which the F-actin was removed. The most important thing is that actin microfilments are even more dynamic structures, which can be winnowed and grow, or, navpaki, are considered in the presence of globular actin.

In living cells, such, when they are in use, the fibrillary system is not stable to stabilize with a host of specific bins, which are associated with F-actin. So block-tropomyosin, in conjunction with microfilaments, needs a lot of hardness. A number of bricks, for example, filament and a-actin, are used to fix transverse scrapes between F-actin threads, so that a foldable trivial hedge is produced until the end of the process, and a gel-like cell of cytoplasm is needed. Some additional flavors can be used to tie the flames into bunches (fimbrin), etc. In addition, you can use the flasks, which can be combined with microfilaments and can easily be picked up, stabilized. The interaction of the F-actin with a complex group of blocks regulates the aggregate mill of microfilaments in a short time, but, in a short time, the connection with the other components. A special role in the interaction with actin is to play the myosin-type proteins, which at once set up a complex with actin, which is built up to speed with the cleavage of ATP.

Actin is a heterogeneous block, in small cells there can be different variants, or isoforms, which can encode skin with its own genome. So, in savts є 6 small actins: one each in skeletal and heart meats, two types - in smooth oysters (one of them in sudins) and two, nem'yazov, cytoplasmic actin, which is a universal component. Yakikh klin ssavtsiv. All the forms of actin are even more subtle for the amino acid aftermath, the options in them are intseve dіlyanki, as they start the quickness of polymerization, but do not pour it on the fast. This is the similarity of the act, unaffected by the actions of the mind, the origin of the power in the country.

58. Method of electronic microscopic vivchennya klin

Contrasting corpuscular objects. Particles of viruses, phages, visions of cell components (ribosomes, membranes, vacuoles, etc.), Molecules can be called corpuscular objects. One of the widespread methods of contrasting biological objects є cushioning with metals. In general, in special vacuum installations, thermal vaporization of metal is carried out. With a wide atom of metal, it spreads out as a mixture of vaporization behind straight paths. Zustrіchayuchis s ob'єktom, the stench settles on a new ball at the viglyadі; Yogo production will be greater in the pieces perpendicular to the right edge of the metal particles. At dilyankas, de ob'єkt screening is a bunch of particles, to blame “tini”. In such a rank, the filed part of the object is more proficient, the file is not filing (background), and the object will be seen. The whole method is widely used not only for contrasting viruses, ribosomes, ale and for reaching thin molecules of nucleic acids. Minus tsiy method in that, wіn produce up to an increase in the size of the object on the size of the filed ball, which in a short drop-off reaches 10 - 15 A0. The last shortcoming of yogo in the fact that he was given information only about callous viglyad and a lot of particles. For contrast, platinum, paladiy, їх alloys, uranium are used for shading. In case of negative contrasting, the contents of the salts of important metals contain molybdenum oxides of ammonium, uranyl acetate, phosphoric-tungstic acid (FVA). As soon as the water solutions of such rivers change with biological objects, and then apply them on the pads and hanging, then the objects (for example, viruses or blue complexes) appear like a ball of amorphous bones in thin ones. In an electronic microscope, the stench is seen as a light object on a dark aphid (as a photo-negative). The method is overwhelmed by the fact that salts can penetrate into the depth of the object and reveal additional details. Negative contrast is widely stagnant with the introduction of viruses, enzyme complexes of membranes. The filaments of the nucleic acid molecule by the method show up badly through the mala tovshchini. Some important metals can be victorious with the so-called positive contrast. In general, in contrast to the contrast, the speech rings with the structure, advancing the electronic proficiency. Often, for a positive contrast of nucleic acids, it can be broken down with uranyl acetate in alcohol or in acetone. Uranyl acetate, contrasting nucleic acids, good farbus of the central emptying of spherical viruses, significantly increases the contrast of ribosomes and allows the formation of thin strands of visual nucleic acids.

Ultramicrotomy ... When vivchenni ob'єktіv in the electronic microscope, the winery is still one accelerated - tse їkh tovschina. On the right, when a beam of electrons is passed through the object, a part of the elec- trons is glazed, which leads to the heating of the object and to its deformation. This requires a mother of thin objects (not 0.1 microns). The procedure for preparing the preparation is, in principle, suitable until the moment, when you study it in the microscope. Klіtini and fabrics for a whole lot of fіksuyut. In the capacity of the fixators, there is a buffer of glutaraldehyde or osmium chotirioxide (OsO4). Naybilsh often stagnates sub-lines of fixation: a collection of glutaric aldehyde, and then osmіy, which is an important metal structure. Then, during the hot water, the fabrics can seep through with epoxy resins or other plastics in a rare, monomeric form. When polymerizing such plastic leaks, they tend to get bogged down in solid blocks, as it is already possible to grow on thin sprays. Ideally friendly and without jagging, the surface of the slope can be seen. Ale, the knives are still not good enough, and they must be victorious only once. Stagnate diamond knives: with a special rank sharpened diamonds, the stench to serve as a broach of diamond rock. The preparation of a superfine vision is needed for an additional thermal supply of the object. We will put the block in plastic by fixing it on a metal shear, which heats up and by itself letting the object go forward by a singular amount per one hour. And as long as the term supply of performance with rhythmic cycles of development, then it is possible to eliminate a series of performances of the given production. It can be reached with special attachments - ultra-microtomes. To find out the constructions of ultra-microtomes, de feeding the object to work mechanically. The area of ​​the acquired ultra-thin eyes is narrower (0.1 - 1 mm 2), which means that all operations during ultra-microtomy are performed under microscopic control. Seeing, mounted on sieves with a lining, it is necessary to additionally contrast - "farbuvati" for the addition of salts of important metals. In a wide variety of vikoristovuyut also salts of lead and uranium, as they ring with internal structures on the surface, positively contrast. In electronic microscopic dosages, we can use the methods of autoradiography. The superfine-grained emulsion (the size of the granules is close to 0.02 - 0.06 microns) is also vicious. The short-lived method є even a great hour of exposure, in many ways, the reach of decilkoh miscellaneous. More and more preparation methods for preparing ultra-thin eyes without fixing and pouring the clitins into solid plastic are being used. The whole method of cryo-ultratramicrotomy, i.e., the removal of spores from frozen tissues, instantly cooled to a temperature of nitrogen-rich (-1960). At the same time, it is practically instantaneous galvanizing of all metabolic processes, and the water from the solid phase transforms into a solid, rather non-crystalline, molecular structure is beardless (sclopodibny stan). Such solid blocks at a temperature of low nitrogen can be cut on ultra-thin samples (not at the same time when cooling). Otrimanization of vitamins for detecting the activity of enzymes in them, for carrying out immunochemical reactions on them, for enzymatic over-etching, etc. can be seen with victorious chemistry and extravagant receptions of ultra-thin visions.

Інші special methods of electronic microscopy of biological objects

Freezing method - etching- polyagaє in the fact that the object is quickly frozen with liquid nitrogen, and then, at the same temperature, it is transferred to a special vacuum installation. There, frozen objects are mechanically bonded with a cold knife. At the same time, the inner zones and frozen cells are exposed. In the vacuum, the part of the water, the yak, has passed into a contentious form, to be overwhelmed ("etching"), and the surface is covered with a thin ball of viparouled in carbon, and then metal. This is the order of the frozen і zberіgaє to adhere to the structure of the material to decorate the replica from the first display. Again, in the minds of the room temperature, tissue, or cells, can be detected in acids, albeit a replica, when it’s overwhelmed, and in an electronic microscope. The whole method of making a change: to create replicas from the chips of native images; to slug the surface of cellin membranes, using incomplete methods. Viyavilosya, scho i vipad home organization Cellini and components are similar to those that are bacimo in case of chemistry, or in case of cryotomy. The whole method allows popping, as on the surface, so globules are shrinking in the cell membranes, but the membranes are not one-sided for their structure.

I will stay for an hour to fix the methods high-voltage(Вірніше, superhigh-voltage) microscopy. Designed with a sprinkle of 1-3 million V. The difference to the class of electronic microscopes is not in the fact that they can be used for more temporality(With a large short amount of electricity), and in that, with a high energy level of electrical power, you can glimpse a glimpse of great things (1 - 10 microns). Dodatkov, the registration of stereoscopic zyomka allows you to reject information about the trivial organization of internal structures with a high allowance (close to 0.5 nm). The whole method is promising in the first place: if, with the over-high energy of the electrons, there is a change in their interaction with the object, then in principle it can be victorious with the implantation of the ultrastructures of living objects. The infection is carried out by robots in a straight line. Scanning (raster) electronic microscopy method Allowing to vivchit the trivial picture of the surface of the cell. When scanning electronic microscopy, a thin beam of electrons (probe) breaks through the surface of the object, and the information is removed to the electronic exchange tube. The image can be rendered in the image or secondary electrons. With a whole method of fixing and a special order of hanging, the object is to be curled with a thin ball of vapoured metal (most often gold), which is driven from some kind of electronic device to the receiver, so that the signal is transmitted to the electronic tube. The managers of the majestic depth of focus of the scanning microscope, which is much higher, lower at the prospect, can be seen as more trivially imaged on the surface. For the additional raster electronic microscopy, information about the chemical warehouse can be edited out in the quiet rooms of the kitchen. Thus, the method of X-ray spectral microanalysis of samples for identification and evaluation of chemical elements behind the spectra of the characteristic X-ray vipromynuvannya, which is in the case of the interaction of primary electrons with atoms. For rejection of such information, it is obvious that you do not need to curl the metal with a ball, as with the special method of scanning electronic microscopy. Moreover, it is necessary to make sure that you do not need to add any additional elements. For a whole lot of vicious food, frozen and hanging in the vacuum of the object.

Klіtinna shell is good to grow and vidosmіni. As a result, a second structure is established. The sweat of the shell is carried out by the way of imposing new verses on the nerve shell. I will look at those overlapping or even a hard shell, fibril cellulose in the skin ball to lie parallel, and in the middle balls - from one to one. We can reach the value and the hardness of the second shell. In the world, as the number of balls of fibril cellulose is growing, the size of the wall is growing, and the number of balls is growing until it grows up. In the second cellular stage, the growth of cellulose is significant, in some cases up to 60% and more. In the world of old age, the matrix of the shell can be stored with different words - lignin, suberin (lignification or peeling of the shell). Lignin is established with hemi-cellulose and pectin rechains. [...]

The clinker sheath of wood fiber is small spherical: the first one, which is called the last sheath of the fiber, and the second (the clinker, which can be stored in its own room, from three spheres: the last, middle and inner). Between the primary walls of the clines there is a ball of intercultural speech, behind the addition of a fiber there is one for one. The second wall of the shop is also a head mass of obsyagu klitini. [...]

Pine trees have accumulated in the secondary balls of the vineyards. great numbers mannani (22%) and uronic anhydride (25%). [...]

[ ...]

The phase of the cultivation of the culture. Yak vіdbuvaєtsya vіdbuvshenya. At the period of growth, the protoplast of the effluent is only primary. If the village of klitina is within reach of its greatest size on the surface, or it’s not a bargain, the village of klitina can be pissed off. The price of the viclikan of the second wine on the first one, and the new ball of wine is the result of a subtle protoplast activity in the middle of the empty pot. Naturally, scho cells, in which a protoplast is a native, can not continue drinking their own glass. An introduction to the secondary school є I will acquaint myself with the non-gatekeeping changes in the clientele, further away from the growth of which it is already included, but it will not be necessary to get involved in the future for thinking that I am obsessed with such a rank; [...]

М.1іп - kilim, crooked). Wines are stored in tabular thin cells with dense cytoplasm. Name a single-row wine, ale inode buva two-row or bagato-row. Klitini “note that it’s single-core, because of the stench it often turns into double-core, or to wind it up as dual-core. Tapetum is physiologically highly active tissue: its cells take revenge on enzymes, hormones, and living material, which is vicarious in the process of microsporhepes. Є deyakі pіdvvat vvazat the secretory type in the evolutive type is the first, and the amoeboid - the second. [...]

It is necessary, however, for sure, that there should be a date to be looked at as close as possible, since the specific preparations were not blinded to purification. [...]

It is important that there is a growth in the cells of polyuronic hemicelluloses, so that the reagents that are used for their detection are injected into the lignin. Deyakі prelіdniki allow, with cementing speech between fibrils and different verses of clerical style є hemicellulosis. Koen vvazhaє to navit, but the second-hand language is of the same nature with hemiceluloses. In addition, for such a stew to serve, mabut, the fact that acting in carbohydrates, when absorbed with strong acids, can give unrepentant surpluses of singing baby. Slides of adiposity, proteas, dlyanski, which are reliably crushed with reagents, but not crushed by them, give surplus of a similar structure when infused with 72% hydrochloric acid. [...]

For the storage of the warehouse around the spheres of the cells of the cells, the bull is broken with a sample of the xylouronids in the small balls of the tracheids and the libriform. Vimiri was carried out on fibers of Japanese pine, European yalits, beech and birch. For the whole fiber, it is safe to etch in the middle of the otstovy anhydride and chotiricchloride in the carbon. At the same time, we saw the release of the ball in acetone, for which the change of pentosans in the surplus was controlled by furfural. Bulo is set up with pentosans in wood fibers according to the methods of distribution nervnomіrno. The greatest number of pentosans is found in the most recent balls of fibers and the concentration of them falling from the periphery to the center. So, the last balls of the fibers of the coniferous tree cover 50-80% of the pentosans, and in the foliage, 100%. In the secondary balls of the stem cells, in the conifers, pentosans were found no more than 2-4%, and in the foliage 8-10%. In such a rank, the cheeky method, after confirming the results, eliminated earlier the sorption of ultraviolet light. [...]

Razrіznyayut lіgnіn first, which is located in the Oderevіnnya kіtinnіnyh lіgnіn (natural lіgnіn) and second - іsolovaniy lіgnіn. Remaining in the meaning of the world by speech, changing in the process of isolation and obstructing the houses of third parties. The sign of the lignin is roaming in the introduced methoxyl groups, intramolecular condensation and in other signs. [...]

There is a lot of difference between the types of fabrics, which are enriched with the Buda classic style, especially the second one. As we have already said, the establishment of the primordial cell line is seen in the process of stretching the cell, and, again, it’s the mother’s power of elongation that is to blame, so that the second wall is to be formed as soon as it’s grown up. [...]

Preston

One hour, with all the internal changes, it is hard to splinter on the vertices of five teeth, giving out to the seedling, as well as from the central cell (Fig. 269, 3). The first growth of the central cell is made by a transverse partition, perpendicular to the next axis, and to create two functionally growing cells to the end. From one, large clitine in a small place, stalks flow into the flow, which at the cob stage of development is called pregrowths, from the bottom, the smaller clitine is the first of the rhizoids. The offense of the stench grows in a path of cross-sectional podil_v. The pregrowth grows uphill and grows brightly green, zapovnyuchi with chloroplasts, peeling the rhizoids straight down and become barren (Fig. 269, 4). For a number of cell lines, which are used to produce single-row threads in Budov, there are differentiations for universities and junior universities, and for the most recent upper-class growth, it is described in the same way as for the boolean. From the institutes of the pre-growths there are secondary pre-growths, whorls of the leaves and the peduncles of the stem, from the institutes of the first rhizoids - the second Rizoids and most of the hairs. In such a way and form a thallus, it can be stored in decal stem pagons at the upper part and decal folded rhizoids in the lower part (Fig. 2G9, 5). [...]

Supramolecular structure. Figure 6.10 shows a model of the structure of the clitinous line. Vaughn includes 2 main balls: the primary wall P and the secondary Stay grows on 3 balls: 5], 5, Ball M, the middle plate, є. [...]

At the beginning of the breakdown (їm. Part II), the chemistry of the classrooms will be clearly discernible, as well as some of the differences in them and the disputes between them. However, we have finished looking at the fourth and final phase of the ontogeny of the village cultine, after they have guessed about the deyaky appearances, such as those who are knitted with a good way, as the botanists sew. The approval and growth of cells, as well as the cultivation of cellines, may lead to loss of life for the life of a cell protoplast, since the death of a celline cannot be allowed to become a king. The process of lіgnіfіkatsіy can find endings in the sphere of multi-cultural speech and in the first stage, or even at the second stage, to see how many names will remain in the sphere of docentric speech. At the villages of the trees, the linguistics often end up in the ball sooner rather than later, connecting to the inner side of the cambium, call up immediately from the team, if the new clientele have reached their greatest size, and the second ones are of their own. I will explain why sapwood, with the same change in theology, is so much as it can be so mizna itself, like a nuclear tree. [...]

Detailed doslіdzhennya rozpodіlu lіgnіnu i polіsaharidіv in zderev'yanіlih klіtinnih stіnkah Dereviny Firs i birch vimіrom іntensivnostі absorbtsії thin beam ultrafіoletovih promenіv at prohodzhennі їh through PROZOROV zrіz pіdtverdilo perevazhne roztashuvannya lіgnіnu in seredinnіy plastintsі i pervinnoї stіntsі and takozh chastkovo in zovnіshnіh balls vtorinnoї stіnki. In the middle lamellar tree, 73% of the reach is lignin, and in the second school - no more than 16%. Zvidsy vipliva, which polysaccharide zoseredzheni in the main in the secondary ball. The bullet was broken with a test of vimiryatytsim by the method of rostashuvannya cellulose and hemi-cellulose. For a lot of polysaccharide, a mix of boules is re-infused into a boiled polysaccharide that absorbs light. [...]

Large clientele clearly develops a focus on zones and a large or small amount of linen, which gives rise to the visibility of concentric dusts. During the protolezhny process, as long as the cell is becoming delimited. reagents, babies cellulose get colishnim. It’s worth mentioning about those that are aware, mabut, two interconnected systems, that one of cellulose and other polysaccharides is stored, and one is with lignin. Bailey and Kerr showed that the size of the particles went up to 0.1 x less. Promises or smogs to explain the notion of unmistakably great "fibrils", marked by deyakyi prelіdnikov. In addition to the overgrowing concentric malunks, in the fibers of certain types of wood, the rosetting of radial lines or a combination of both types is manifested. Clitines of the wood of the wood are often harsh, the more hard the swamp is lined with the empty clit and radially-roasted plates of the wood, bordered by the zones of polysaccharide speech, in the middle part of the wall of the cl. [...]

Before the warehouse of lichens, there are a lot of elements and words. All of them can be divided into two great groups - first and second. Prior to the first ones, there are three speeches, as they bezposeredno take a part in the clint exchange of speeches; from them motivated by lichens. Before the second ones, the end products are exchanged for the exchange of words, as they are made up for on the walls of the GIFs. A lot of ciches of secondary lichen rechavina (in the most ancient literature they were called lichen acids) are specific for lichens and do not develop in organisms from the other systematic groups. [...]

Ritter, Lyudtke i in. It seems that when the fibers are impregnated with special reagents, the swelling occurs, the secondary wall (and also, imovirno, and firstly) falls on thread-like fragments or fibrils. The ratter has poured it into spindle-shaped bodies, and in its own place, on spherical units. The meaning of such great structural units (the number of spindle-like bodies is approximately 4 [x) is unclear, from a glance at the described structure of the fine-pored structure of the secondary side. Neither in the surplus of the lignin for deciding cellulose, nor in the surplus of cellulose for the deciding of the lignin, there are no other promises to appear, but to indicate on the inter-named one of the walls. In addition, the presence of similar, occasionally great individuals has not been established in the structures of cell walls during the recent advancement of the electronic microscope. [...]

When assessing the development of wood-cutting mushrooms on roslinna fabric it is necessary to vrahovuvati, scho okremi gifih. to collapse in the shopping malls of vibirkovo. So, the fungi of white rot will volatilize the middle plate and the primary shell, deseeding with the head rank lignin. Mushrooms with a chervona or brown rot, navpaki, vvazhayut for beautifully passes through the second olonts, the most rich in carbohydrates. As a matter of fact, there is a growing number of trees in them. More details of the food will be displayed in a small place. [...]

The pre-development of the tracheid and the libriform behind the addition of a polarization and electronic microscope, as well as X-ray, allowed the installation of five concentric balls in the cell walls: the first, but the first time. The second wall in its own circle is divided into three balls, call it 81, VG and Bz. In addition, between the primary walls of the mid-plate, they grow to be glued together into the middle plate (Fig. 35). [...]

It will be explained by the fact that wine of valuable products from the reactionary space will be quickened and the development of secondary reactions will be slowed down. In addition, when the water vapor is closed with the capillary system of the tree, steam can appear on the surface balls, which can also be flashed for thermal distribution in an acidic aqueous medium. At the same reaction, the distribution is added to the first place in the balls of the glass, such as the growth of the inner sides of the empty cells, the storage is important from the non-heat-resistant hemicelluloses, which are easily absorbed by the acetyl acids. [...]

It is unlikely that it is correct to name the segments as clitines, to fold the spheroplay threads, and not only to the fact that the stink may smell depleted nuclei and chloroplasts (and, moreover, it is clearly second-rate statements), but also, as there are no similar cliffs across the walls rich green algae. The stench strongly varіyuyut behind the form, as well as for the way and in the moment of adoption (Fig. 226, 4-6). Often, the transverse partitions may appear to be visible on the inner walls of the cells, which do not linger in the center, so that there are no openings, the cytoplasmic cord passes through the yake (Fig. 226, 4). In some cases, the partitions are replaced by special plugs. I, nareshty, in any kind of thread, a group of strands can radially converge, so that the skeletal heavy caulerpes and play a mechanical role can be played. [...]

The name of the plasma membrane of the cells is not of the same age as it is, because it can be stored in chitin, or in cellulose. Reserve carbohydrates in the form of glycogen (food starch). [...]

Marks-Fіgіpі and Pepcels vyvchali zmіna SP bavovnya cellulose at the younger stages of ripening bavovnya. The stench showed that the viscosity of the differences in cellulosis decreased after a few years after the opening of the box. The cellulose of the secondary cellulite in the fibers has cracked the bavine capsule at low maturity (cellulose release-18%), a single maximum on the growth curves at SP 14,000. Close to 10% to the material, the molecular weight is more than 1,500; primordial culture. [...]

The position of the microscopic illumination of microfibrils can be reduced to the surface of the membrane by the cytoplasm in a different way. So, in the bacterium, the process is counteracted in the middle, meaning from the distance from the surface of the cell and from the same, from the membrane. Mabut, analogous to the synthesis of counterparts in the most promising primary cells of the blood cells of the coleoptiles of the virus, the synthesis of cellulose in a general way, it is possible to develop equally well in the ale of the blood cells. In the shells of ascidians, the cellulosis are introduced, mabut, and also in the mountains, from the distant surfaces of the secretory cells, I want to endure the overconfused evidence of the brooding. Navpaki, microfibrilized secondary stems of clin roslin, can be installed on the inner surface of the stem, in the immediate vicinity of the cytoplasm membrane. The splinters of cellulose in the secondary walls are much larger, lower in the first ones, it is possible to grow the spines, but more cellulosic microfibrils are established near the membrane by cytoplasm. However, the tse is not binding. [...]

One of the methods, based on a whole principle, is the method of determining the reaction health of cellulose according to the picture of swelling of xanthates per day - propyl alcohol. The process of swelling during the interaction of the fiber with the distributor can be schematically represented by the following rank: the line penetrates into the middle of the fiber, as a result of which the amount of fiber grows. Then we can see the development of a weak elastic ring of the secondary fiber, and in the process of cutting it is established as a result ("namisto"). Fill the balls of the ball on the thickened fibers of the constrictions and cuffs. Then, the last ball drifts and the fiber swells, the transverse swells and the fiber spread onto the packets of discs and around the discs, which can be distributed on a later basis. [...]

The prevalence of the culture of the tree is in the place of theology. So, as the miraculousness and rigidity of the tree is often caused by the forces of heat, how the molecules ring, be it an agent that changes the strength, changes the medicine as a whole. One of these agents is water, which is why the nature of the tree grows in the world of change instead of inology, not only as a result of increased scholarship, but as a result of shrinkage, or also through the presence of secondary valence forces. So, as the presence of water in a number, which overwhelms the point of the fiber, does not change the character of the culture, it is a waste of either capillary (wine) water and practically does not flow into the indicators of the tree's miraculousness. [...]

Structures, which are rich in lignin, are fished in a dark brown color to black, todi are weakly identified zones and fade in a light-colored color to burstin. The results of the whole color reaction will increase the progress of the front robots in accordance with the latest chemistry of the classroom. Secondary stems of fibrous elements in a tree of leafy breeds, which grow in the interior climate, light, the same, the stench of less recognition, less secondary stems of coniferous species. The blades of the blades of leafy breeds are prepared in a larger dark color, less fibrous elements, and the stench will be more ligninous; membranes are also highly detectable. [...]

The whole operation took place on the healthy spines, in front of them, for the additional sodium chlorite in the ocetic acid medium. Then the growth of p-phenylaz-; benzoylchloride with the method of etherification of polysaccharides. Yaskravo zaparvlenі in orange-chervoniy kolіr srіzі pіslya pobryakannya in pіridinі photometrіvat. Suppose such a sample of growth, from which to stand with holocellulose, before and when the hemicelluloses are visible, stand in the distance, but the main mass of hemicelluloses in the village of yelin and birch is grown in the outer globes of the secondary. So, when extracting 16% sodium holocellulose, 16% dry soda is added, but half of the spheres of the cinnamon sticks up to 60-80%, in the middle of the cinnamon rolls close to 50% and of the 16% of the heme of the cakes. ... A similar picture was observed for the transverse species of the libriform from the birch tree. [...]

Doslidi Ritter, and piznishe Bailey and in. It was shown that, independently of the possible presence of pectin polyuronic acid in the middle plates, it can be used as a head of the wine, as it is reasonable for chemistry (not to be found in cold 72% chlorinated, weak, acidic acids). Besides, Ritter didv, that a large part of the lignin is in the same sphere. At that hour the thought was overwhelmingly overheard about the presence of a large part of the lignin in these balls, especially at the second stage. It has been reported that in such cases there is a wide and voluminous secondary wall in action for pavutins, as it happens that it changes and transforms into the development of shmatochka. If the original stinks are included in the folding middle plate, then finish it in no time, since there is a great part of the lignin here. [...]

Calcium channels evolve in the membranes of tall clitins. Shown is the regulation of the 45Ca2 + microsome input, the images of corn coleoptera and the harmelon hypocotyl, light, PUK, and the presence of calmodulin reactions. For the function of the potential for Ca2 + -channels (water content Iie11or, w), Mg2 + is required. The station of potential dependent channels is controlled by a system of enzymes, raiding the level of cAMP in cells. Buli also disclaims the data, indicating the direct action of exogenous cAMP on the 45Ca2 + cling in the cells of SMATUOOPT hetskarsh (mutant without a cAMP). Dani, hovering over Fig. 4.1, inform about the regulatory activity of cAMP on the use of Ca2 + cells. The aim is for the possibility of mutual regulation of two systems of secondary intermediaries - cAMP and Ca2 +. In the past with the creatures of cells, the ability to cling to Ca2 + for the duration of the cyclic AMP will explain the phosphorylation of the potential for Ca2 + -channels and in many cases. [...]

Vyvchennyu diї ultrasound on cellulose fiber is assigned a lot of doslіdzhen. Deyak's pre-glazed people put in or put in an injection of ultrasound with small mechanical actions. For example, Jaime, Kronert and Neuhaus performed ultrasound on cellulose fibers in varied with high-frequency mechanical pulleys and showed that ultrasound at a frequency of 20-3000 kHz detonated the structure of the fiber, increasing the foot of the winter swelling. The mechanical technique of the paper, which is prepared from such cellulosically, moves, especially the technique until it is ripped off. Similarly, there are high-frequency mechanical communication. Ivasaki, Lindberg and Meyer vvazhayut, scho Zagalna picture The change in the structure of the fiber for ultrasound in the aqueous medium is similar to the changes in the structure of the fibers during mechanical shaving. At the same time, glib changes in the morphological structure of the fibers are seen, so that they can be destroyed in the second class, the great shmats from the primordial age, probably before the swelling of the second stage. In Safonova's and Maple's robots, when microphotographs of fibers are implanted, given by ultrasonic injection into water, it is shown that there is more damage in the structure of the fiber, as it becomes penetrated by the whole number of channels of the number transverse. It is meant that the fibers of the early tree and the fibers that were not hung up are more receptive to ultrasound.

Klitina sheath is a typical component of willow clitini, a product of protoplast vitality.

functions:

1. Mittsnі and zhorstki kіtinnі shells, to serve as a mechanical support for the organs of the growing line.

2. The shell is surrounded by the stretching of the protoplast by the vacuole, and the size and form of the adult cell is no longer growing.

3. At the last tissues of the clitinny shells, they want to lie more than the clitins are seen.

4. For cell lines, up to one bed, there may be oversupply of speech and water from cell to cell (path through apoplast).

5. Smell vplyuyut on poglinannya, transpiration and secretion.

Classical stinks, as a rule, are without barriers and it is easy to miss the sleepy light. Walls of Suspended Clitins of Scripting Pectin middle payment... The middle plate is a single ball, a ball for two suspension clitins. Vona is a splinter of a type of cellular plate, which was formed in the process of cytokinesis. The middle plate of the mensh is watered, in which there may be present molecules of lignin. As a result of the internal clutch, cuti of cells can be rounded, and intercellular spaces become established by the intercellular cells. All the stem cells of the roseline, tied one by one, will adhere to the intercellular spaces that are filled with water, make sure that the stem of the watered middle is free of water, in which it is possible to oversubscribe the water-borne speech.

Budova і chemical warehouse.

Primary clitinna stinka.

A collection of names from Plasmalemmy Vinika pervinna klinna wall.

warehouse: cellulose, hemi-cellulose, pectin and water.

Primordial cell lines of the mid-plate At the cellulite lineage, the cellulose molecules (micron) are stored in glucose, picked into bundles - micelles, which, in their turn, are combined in microfibrils - 4 nm. , and then in macrofibrilli. Cellulose fixes a large-scale framework, which is embedded in an amorphous highly watered matrix from non-cellulosic carbohydrates: pectin, hemicellulose and in. Cellulose itself will preserve the taste of the wine. They are microfibre and elastic and in terms of performance for roasting of certain types of steel. Polysaccharide matrix has the same power of strength, like penetration for water, breakdown of other molecules and ions, strong swelling. Matrix zavdyak on the walls, scho lays up to one, the water can be oversaturated and the speech goes from the bed to the bed (go through the apoplast along the "free space"). Deyakі hemіcelyulosis can be deposited in the walls of cells in the capacity of spare words.

Development of the wall.

If the client is depleted, the client will be deprived of the payment again. On her daughters offended women, they put on vasny stinks, so they can become the head rank of hemicellulosis. With a complete coverage of the walls, they are displayed on the inner surfaces of the walls, so that there should be a mother's bed. Klіtinnа platіvka will be transformed into the middle; Pislya podilu klitina enters the phase of stretching for the rakhunok central vacuole... The turgor vise is stretching the glass, the cellulose and the speech matrix are inserted into the yak. I will name this way of growing іntussuscepttsіі, Vprovadzhennya. The shells to grow and grow are called primordial. The stench takes up water up to 90%, in dry speech it re-ferments the polysaccharide matrix: in dvodolnye pectin and hemicellulosis in pectin and hemi-cellulose, in monocotyledonous - in the main hemicellulosis; Zmist cellulose I do not change 30%. The primary product is not more than 0.1 ... 0.5 microns.

Until the moment, if the growth of the culture is over, the growth of the culture can be trivial, or even into the community. Tsey process is called a secondary taunting. At the same time, on the inner surface of the primary cell, a secondary cell is added. The growth of the secondary policy is based on the results appointing, Applying new cellulose micelles to the inner surface of the cellulite. In such a rank, the most young shari of the clerical style is the closest to the plasmallema.

For some types of cells (abundant fibers, tracheids, segments of the sudins), the establishment of a second stage is the main function of the protoplast, for the completion of the second stage of training. However, tse is not obov'yazkovo. Secondary wall of the vicon is the main rank of mechanical, support functions. In її warehouses, there is much less water and they handle microfibrilized cellulose (40 ... 50% of dry speech). Secondary fibers of lion and hairs of bavovnik have more than 95% cellulose.

Mechanism to inspire the culture. It is critical to establish itself as a result of protoplast activity. Approximately to the end of the speech, go into the wall from the middle, from the side of the protoplast. Budivelny materials - molecules of cellulose pectin, lignin and other words - accumulate and often synthesize in tanks of the Golgi apparatus. Packed in bulbs in a Golgi apparatus, the stench is transported to the plasma membrane. Having grown up, the plump burst, and instead of it, the call of the plasmalemmy appears. The membrane of the bulb is new to the integrity of the plasmalemma. Plasmalemmy enzymatic activity factories yde zbirka fibril cellulose budova klinnoi stinki. Confirmed by the plasmalemma are made to fit in the middle, not to be intertwined. In this organization, it is a great role to lay antifibrillators on the microtubules, and in parallel with the plasmalemma.

2. Pori. Types of culture.

Pori. When the primordial culture is established, there are more thin dies in them; Tubules of the endoplasmic lancer pass through here through the walls, alternating between the cemeteries. Tsі dіlyanka are called the first equal fields , And the endoplasmic canaliculi, which pass through them, - plasmodesmami .

Growing up in the community to be seen in the middle of the world is not always, not thickened, there are not many small pieces of the first class in the process of growing the first floods (porous canals). Pore ​​channels of two suspicious cells roztashovuyuyut one against one; Submicroscopic openings are stored at the pods, through which plasmodesmi pass. In such a rank, it's time - two pores to the canal and the slowing down of the flow between them.

Plasmodesmi permeate the flavors of the pyr. In skin cells from hundreds to tens of thousands of plasmodesmata. Plasmodesmata are created only - in the growing cells, there, de solid cells. Plasmodesmies are set up from the ER channels, as they become cluttered with two daughter clients. When the EP is updated, both clitin stinks appear through the plasmodesmi.

Plasmodesmata pass through the plasmodesmenny channel in the quiescent pore. Plasmalemma, which is a canal, and hyaloplasm between her and plasmodesmata without interruption from the plasmalemma and hyaloplasms of sumy cells. In such a rank, the protoplasts of the suspension cells are tied between the channels of the plasmodesm and the plasmodesmam. It is followed by a small transport of ions and molecules, as well as hormones. Ob'ednanі plasmodesmami protoplastіv kіtin in roslinі set up a single purpose - symplast. The transport of rivers through the plasmodesmi is called simplastic in terms of apoplastic transport along cells and intercellular spaces.

In the process of living a cell, a cellulite cell can become a species.

Roslinny cells, similar to cells of procaryotes and fungi, are placed in an appropriately large cell line. The material for encouraging the culture of the culture is secret Klitina is alive(Protoplast). For their chemistry warehouse, the cell lines of roslin are seen from cell lines of procaryotes and fungi (Table 2.1), to some of the structures of power that make the background functions, and the very function of support to the source; In addition, it is necessary to flank the ruggedness of the clitin. Klіtinna stinka, appeared before the hour of the іtinna roslinya, is called the primordial clіtinnaya stіnka. As a result of the persuasion of the winner, you can reimagine it on a second classroom. The process of establishing the primordial culture is described in a number of distributions. In fig. 7.21 Electronic microphotography has been created, at which one can be backed up from the early stages of the process.

Budova klіtinnoї stinki

The primary cell is stored from cellulose microfibrils, buried in a matrix, up to the storage that contains folding polysaccharides. Cellulose is also a polysaccharide (see section 5.2.3 for chemistry). Especially important for this role, like cellulose visonuє in the cells, may be for fibrous buds and the opportunity for cutting, made of steel. Oremolecules of cellulose - the chain of polysaccharide lantsyuga. There are no such molecules, which are sewn together one by one transverse watery links, are picked up in microbeams, called microfibrils... They were embedded in the matrix microfibre to establish the skeleton of the cell line. The matrix of the classroom is stored in polysaccharides, which for the sake of vitality I will describe pectiniі hemicellulosis in fallowness from їх distribution in retail stores, which can be used for extracts. pectini, abo pectin, When extracts you are prone to see peppers, splinters of food. Price is a change in a group of acidic polysaccharides (stimulated by monosaccharides Arabinose and galactose, galacturonic acid, which should be brought to the class of sucrose acids, and methanol). Dovgі molecules of pectin riches can be buty lіnіynyy or galuzhdeny. middle plate, Scraping the glass of dry clitin, stored in sticky gelatinous pectate with magnesium and calcium. In the case of cultivars, the fruits of non-transformed pectin are ripening, and they are re-transformed into a new form of pectin. When you add the tsukru, you will be able to use the gels; to that їkh vikoristovuyut yak thirsty speech.

hemicellulosis- a group of polysaccharides that grow in meadows (before them polymers of xylose, galactose, manosi, glucose and glucomannosi are introduced). Hemicelluloses, such as cellulose, have cola-shaped molecules, protein lantsyuga is shorter, less ordered and stronger.

Clinical hydration: 60-70% of the mass is hydrated. For the vast expanse of the world of culture, the water is moving without any problems. The presence of water and injected into the chemical and Physical power polysaccharides from the clinical stage.

Materials with advanced mechanical technology, similar to the material of the classroom, that is, more than one component is stored, compositional materials abo composites; їх mіtsnіst grows in viscera, less in the cutaneous components of the environment. The system of fibers and matrices (in technology, the basis of the composite material is called not a matrix, but a matrix. - Approx. Switch), there is a wide range of stagnation in technology, so it’s possible to inculcate power in technology, so it’s in biology. The matrix, which is applied to the grip, is transferred to the fibers, which are applied to the stretching. Wonderful abrasiveness and, mabut, style to uncomfortable chemical infusions, we can in quiet minds. At the beginning of the day, it’s a good time to get a lot of concrete, that is. More light composite material has appeared, in which the role of the matrix is ​​plastic, and the role of reinforcement is a glass or carbon fiber. The tree is a composite material; The goiters are knitted with their own culture. With the use of hard composite materials of biological activity, you can also serve the cyst, cartilage and curl the cuticle of the arthropod. Dull and dull compositions of materials, for example, are applied on the basis of fabrics.

In the case of children, for example, in the case of the leaf mesophyll, for all the protagonists of their life, only the primary cells of the leaf. However, at a large number of cells, additional cells of cellulose appear on the inner surface of the primary cell line (called the plasma membrane), i.e., E. Vinik is a secondary cell. Call the price to see if it’s the size of the cell that reaches its maximum size, and it’s deprived of the deyaky cells, for example, the cells of their knees, to continue growing up until the hour of the phase. The second cultivation of the growth of the growing plant itself is not a trail of swindling with the second growth of the growth of the growing line itself, that is, the increase in the size of the growing plant as a result of the addition of new clients.

Whether a ball of secondary growth of cellulose fibers will grow out under one or the same cut, or in the new balls, there is a cut of growth, in which case even more structure is created. The same roasting of cellulose fibers is shown in Fig. 7.27.

Deyaki cells, such as tracheal elements of the xylem and the cells of the sclerens, learn intensively lіgnіfіkatsії(Lignification); with all the balls of cellulose (first and three second ones), seep through with lignin - a foldable polydimensional speech, not to be referred to polysaccharides. In cells of protoxilemia, the attachment to the lignin may be in the form of a spinal, or sometimes, a form, as seen in Fig. 8.11. In some types of diagnostics, it is suspicious, even if you do not take to respect the so-called portions of the fields, i.e. ... Lignin scrapes cellulose fibers and will cut them on the machine. Win din yak is even harder and hard matrix, so that the power of cell walls for stretching and especially for gripping (zapobigaє progin). In the same way, I will not give the clients a dodgy zashist from uncomfortable physical and chemical infusions. Along with cellulose, to get lost in the kitchen walls, the lignin needs the village because of the special power, which is to shake it with an irreplaceable awakening material.

Functions of the classroom

Bottom pererakhovoyutsya the main functions of the stems of the roselin.

1. Klіtinnі stіnki will be provided without limiting the wedges and growing lines in the whole mechanical mechanism and support. For some fabrics, it is a good idea to accept intensive marketing of cell lines (there is not a large number of cell phones present in all cell lines).

2. The turgidity of the clitines is noticeably turgid, if there is an osmotic flow of water in them. The main support function for all the growers is to serve as a single support for the herbaceous grows and for such organs, like a leaf, that is, there, every day there is secondary growth. CLIENTNI STINKS also protect cells from the production in the hypotonic middle.

3. The arrangement of cellulose microfibrils is surrounded by a singular world that regulates both the growth and the shape of the cells, some of them from the growth of microfibrils to lay down the growth of the cells until they are stretched. Yaksho, for example, they mikrofіbril roztashovuyutsya across the wedge, її yak bi hoops, then wedge, water rises in yak osmosis path, will stretch out in the late straight.

4. The system of one-to-one crocheted wines ( apoplast) Serve as the head way, according to which water and mineral speech are sucked. Klіtinnі stіnki scrіplіnі mіzh themselves behind the help of the middle plates. In the walls, there are small pores, the edge of the cytoplasmic strains, plasmodesmami... Plasmodesmi will bind alive in the place of okremikh clitin - unite all protoplasts into one system, in so-called symplast.

5. The famous cells of the epidermal cells are covered with a special cuticle-cuticle, which is stored from the waxy speech of the Kutin, which reduces the amount of water and changes the organisms' penetration into the growing plant At the cork fabric, the clichés, after the completion of the secondary growth, permeate with suberin, as they vikonuyut similar function.

6. Clinical walls of xylem, tracheids and cytoidal tubes (with cytoidal plates) are attached for long-distance transport of rivers along the line. Tse nutrition is looked at in chap. 8 and 14.

7. The walls of the root endodermis will be squeezed out by the suberin and thus serve as a bar on the way to the ruku vodi (sect. 14.1.5).

8. The children of the clientele and the species are saving reserves of lively words; in this way, for example, heme_cellulosis is stored in deyaky people.

9. In the transmission cells, the area of ​​the surface of the cells of the cells has been increased and the area of ​​the surface of the plasma membrane has been increased, which increases the efficiency of the transfer of rivers by way of active transport (section 14.8.6).

1) clitinna stinka- structurally approved. Functions: give me the shape and shape, seize the protoplast from the callous minds, take care of the fate in the conducted and go-to words.

The basis of the cinnamon shell (warehouse) is high-polymeric in carbohydrates (cellulose, so that the cortkovina is not over-etched, causing low productivity), cellulose molecules are picked into folding beams (micelles), z'єднання) and pectin (cinnamon, swell near water, є dzherelom energy).

Razrіznyayut first and second class shells. Meristematic and young adult cells mayut pervinnu klіtinnu shell, thin, bagatu for pectin and hemi-cellulose; The cellulose was picked in the matrix of the primordial membrane of the rosette in a disordered manner.

vtorinna klinna the sheath will become invisible when the cell reaches the residual size and is superimposed with balls on the primary side of the protoplast. In the second clientele, the cellulose is re-fermented, it is picked up in order, in parallel, just right in the skin ball, so that the meat of the clitine shell grows. In the second clitinny obolontsi є open (pori), de clitini add only the primary membrane and plasmodesmi (cytoplasmic mistki, which is used to make the susceptible clitini roslin).

Types of cell lines:

1. The wood of the clinker shell is attributed as a result of the attachment to the linseed (non-carbohydrate component in fibril), the clitine absorbs elasticity, or it may leak water. The cells are often dead, not alive. Walls of deyakikh clitins can include: visk, Kutin, suberin. Functions: nadaє klіtynі form; I leave one cell as a skeleton for the skin cells, and thanks to all the roses, the vicon will have the function.
2. Probkoen_e wikik to be a special fat-like speech - suberin. Such shells become impenetrable for water and gases, also, the stench does not allow heat to pass through, instead of the clitine with the corked shells of the air.
3. Kutinizatsiya polyagaє at the seen fat-like speech Kutin. Zvvychay kutіnіzіzіzіvіzіzіvіzіnі stіnki shkіrki leaf i " herbaceous stem... To keep the mens penetrating for the water, change the vaping of the water from the roses, protecting them from overheating and ultraviolet. Kutin set on the surface of the organ a splash, called a cuticle.
4. Mineralization of clinny shells - the price of adding: silica and calcium salts. The shells of the leaf skin and the stalk of cereals, sedges, horsetails are very hard to crack. Leaves of cereals and sedges can injure your hands.
5. Slime of shells is the transformation of cellulose and pectin into the mucus and gum. The slinking is kindly spared to be on the nasin lion, as they have been by the water. Osvita slizu spriyє abbreviated chasing water and fastening to the ground.

2) breeding: The health of the taken individual is an ear of a series of children.

Ding on: stateless and stateless (powerlessly and vegetatively)

vegetatively: New individuals develop around vegetative organs or interrelationships. Zd_ysnyuєtsya zavdyaki regіnіratsіy (sv-in vіdnovlyuvat from part tіla organіzm). Biological meaning: a new organism similar to the mother's.

Methods for vegetative propagation:

1. propagation with live bait (part of the growth, the yak is not infected, plant in the substrate, sporodina),
2. propagation by the method of chipping (by way of growing parts of decilkoh roslin, which is stagnant in gardening),
3. propagation by bulbs (meaty bulbs are planted in the ground, lively buckwheat),
4. propagation by plots (make pagony on roots, osika),
5. Propagation by cybulins
6. Propagation by vusami (popping pahony, rooting into roots, bone, sun)
7. breeding by root crops (underground flow, supply of food in-in, conval, fialka, pyri)

Vikoristannya vegetative propagation by people. Rashta div at 40.

For a long time, Lyudin has been cultivating dewlines, becoming vicoristovuvati vegetative propagation. For example, viroshuvannya kartoplі, sunitsі, banana in all lands, the world is only as vegetative as the bulbs, vus and roots.

Vikoristannya of vegetative development of roslin in silskogospodarsk_y practice otrimalo name piece vegetative propagation.

The main priyomy of single-piece vegetative propagation is produced before being repeated quietly, as it is found in the willows in the minds of nature.

People often breed with live bait - parts of green (grapes, currants, aurus, trojanda, cloves, fikus), bulbs (potato, zhorgini, sweet potato, topinambur), leaves (saintpaulia, gloxinia, begonia), cybulins (tsibulya, chasnik, tulip, daffodil), Діленням куша (currant, pyrethrum) and information (agrus, honeysuckle, clematis), wosami (midnight), rootstocks (tsukrova trostina, irisi, floxy), Korenev sites (plum, raspberry, cherry, buzok).

3) Garbuzov... Form: grass. Root stryzhneviy. Stem: climbing, creeping, vyunky Leaf: simple, stems, without hairline.

Formula: separate
1) correct fatty Ca (5) Co (5) A 0 G (3)

2) correct number Ca (5) З (5) А 2 + 2 + 1 G 0

Sutsvittya alone. Plid: tikvina

Representatives: ogirok, dinya, garbuz, kavun., Zucchini

Value: kharchove, kormove