Yake is the value of vacuoles characteristic of the growing clitins. Vacuoles of growing cells

vacuoles i clitinniy sik

A large central vacuole is characteristic of a large mature clitin of roslin, which borrows up to 70-90% of the volume of clitin. At the same time, the protoplast grows with organelles at the sight of an even thinner, permanent ball, which whistles the wall. Permanent protoplasts develop other cytoplasmic vacuoles. Inodі core roztashovuutsya in the center of klіtini in nuclear pocket cytoplasm, such as bandages with a permanent ball with thinned cytoplasmic strands, will cross the central vacuole.

Klіtinniy sіk is a water razchin rіznykh speeches, Scho є by the products of protoplast life, in the main, by spare words and leaves. The reaction of the cinnamon juice is weakly acidic, but it is neutral, but not too much. Recognition, scho to enter to the warehouse of cinnamon juice, is superbly flexible. Ces in carbohydrates, proteins, organic acids and salts, amino acids, minerals, alkaloids, glucosides, tannins, pigments and іnshі roses in water spoluca. Most of them are referred to the group of ergastic rechovin - products in the metabolism of protoplast, which can appear and become known in the development period of the life of the client. Bagato rechovin wine juice is set only in the tall trees.

In the carbohydrate of roslin's juice, it is represented by monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), disaccharides (sucrose) and polysaccharides (slizu, inulin).

Glucose (grape zukor) and fructose (zukor fruit) accumulate in great numbers in juicy fruits. Sucrose (buryak tsukor) in great quantities accumulate in the root crops of tsukrovy beets and stems of tsukrovaya reeds. For a number of families of roslin (cactus, Tovstolist, orchidnі), it is characteristic to accumulate a slime in the clitine juice, so that the water is subdued. Inulin is a reserve polysaccharide, which is deposited at the eye of a coloidal rose in the juice of the underground organs in a foldable substitute for starch.

Bilki accumulate at the sight of the coloidal difference in the vacuoles of the cells to ripen today. When water is saturated at different stages of development, the water is seen from vacuoles, the concentration of the bottle in the juice of the juice is moving, and the wine is transferred to the camp of a solid gel. Vulnerable vacuoles are called healthy aleuronim_sernamі.

The organic acids in the most common juice are often citric, apple, burshtinov and oxalic. There is a great amount of acid in the juice of the immature fruits, giving it sour relish. When the fruits of organic acids are ripened, they can be vicious as a substratum, so the sour relish of the fruits will grow. Salts of organic acids together with mineral ions play a great role in osmotic processes.

Tannidi (tanning speech) - polymeric phenolic spices of tart relish. The stench may smell antiseptic power and seize fabrics of roselin from infection and decay. Especially rich in tannins, measles stems and roots (oak, willow), immature fruits (hairy mountains), leaves (tea) and some pathological growths - galls. Tannіdi vikoristovuyutsya in medicine, for tanning shkіri, farbuvannya textiles in dark brown color.

Alkaloids - versatile in chemically altered nitrogen-containing organic speech, which may give a great gusto. The stench of power may have to be found in the juice, as a rule, in the presence of salts. Bagato alkali-bearing dewlines are scrubbed and not consumed by herbaceous creatures. In cells that revenge alkaloids, super-spiders and rudiments of microorganisms do not develop, and the growths do not get mushroom and bacterial ailments. Particularly rich in alkaloids are representatives of the families of paslion, poppy, madder, Lyutikov and іn.

Glykozidi - a large group of natural riches, spoluks of candies with alcohols, aldehydes, phenols and other rhekovins. A number of roslin glucosides are used in medicine. To the glycosides, there is also a pigment of the cinnamon juice - flavonoids... Some of them - antotsiani- nadayut wine juice, blue or violet color; іnshі - flavoni- zhovty. Anthocyanins are associated with a baguette roslin barb. The range of gamma is summed up by the reaction of the clitine juice: if it is sour, then it is red, neutral - violet, with a slightly alkaline reaction - blue. At the opening ceremony of the infusion of anthocyanins, we will also cover complexes with small metals. Flavoni add zhovtiy kolіr pelyustok to a number of roslin.

The value of organic acids, tannides, alkaloids and glucosides in the clitine juice in the exchange of cells of clitine is insufficient. Earlier, they looked at how the products were exchanged. In this hour it has been shown that they can be involved in the metabolic processes and that they can be seen and how many words are available.

In addition to the function of accumulating spare speeches and exits, vacuoles in tall cells, there is one more important function - to create a turmoil. Concentration of ions and candies in the juice of the central vacuole, as a rule, food, not in the clinic; The tonoplast is meaningful for diffusion from the vacuoles of the spines and in the same hour it is easy to penetrate for water. That water will come to the vacuole. Such a single-straightening process of diffusion of water through a vibrating-penetrated membrane is called osmosis... Come into the cell with water to fix the vice on the permanent protoplast, and through the new one on the cell, wicked up, spring, or turgor klitini. Turgor preserves the non-woody organs of the growth of the form and position in the open space, as well as the definition of mechanical factors.

If a clump is placed in the hypertonic range of any non-toxic salt or sugar (i.e., in the range of greater concentration, lower than the concentration of client juice), then an osmotic release is generated from the vacuole. As a result, the discussion will speed up, the protoplast, which is elastic to the permanent protoplast, will appear as a clitaine, turgor znika, infusion plasmolysis klitini ( Figure 2.9).

Small. 2.9. plasmolysis scheme: 1 - a bed in the camp of a turgoru; 2 - ear plasmolysis; 3 - secondary plasmolysis.

Plasmoliz zsvychay beastly. When the cells are attached to the water, or in a hypotonic range, the water again energetically clings to the central vacuole, the protoplast again cuddles to the cell’s wall, the turgor is renewed. Plasmolysis can serve as an indicator of a living cell, a dead cell does not plasmolize, since there are no vibro-penetrating membranes.

Vtrata torgoru wiklikє vyanennya roslini. When withering in the withers, in the minds of insufficient water supply, thin stinks wrinkle instantly with protoplast and become folded.

The turgor grip does not only adapt to the shape of the non-lignified parts of the roslin; spist clitin sales, T.E. Tvarine klin has a central vacuole for the day, whose growth is considered the head rank for the growth of cytoplasm, so the size of tvarine klin is less pronounced than the tall ones.

The central vacuole of the vine is the path of the zlittya of the abundant ancient vacuoles, such as in the meristematic (membranous) cells. Cytoplasmic vacuoles set up, like vvazayut, for the membrane opening endoplasmic about the Golgi apparatus.

inclusion

Osvita the inclusion of viciously overwhelming accumulations of actions in the exchange of speech in the singing dishes of the cell - in the vacuole, the hyaloplasm, the small organelles, growing up in the cells. These words often fall into sieges from amorphous eyes, or from crystal forms - inclusive... The included form is well visible in the light microscope. For the apparent quiet inclusions, forms and roses, it is possible to see one species, canopy and family of roses from among others, so the stench often serves as an important diagnostic tool in the analysis of the disease of growing roses.

The inclusion is abo storage of a substance(Timchasovo vivedeni with the exchange of speeches for the day), anyway end products exchange. Prior to the first category, include starch grain,lіpіdniekaplіі deposition of proteins; to another - crystals deyaky speeches.

Starch grains- most extensions included roslinnykh clitin... polysaccharide starch- the main type of spare living chapters of the roslin. Winning for the best friends, for the vicarists in the life of the old creatures. The starch of grains of cereals, bulbs of cartoons, fruits of a banana - the lively life of people has become very lively. Wheat dough is stored from grains to starch by 75%, in bulbs of kartoplі starch becomes 20-30%. In a chemically grown-up starch, it is an alpha-1,4-D-glucan, the molecules may look like reddish lants, in tiny grains the stench grows along the radii.

Tiny grains are set in the stroma of the plastids. Chloroplasts have grains on the light assimilation (primary) starch, Scho to be established with an excess of tsukr_v - products_in photosynthesis. Osvita osmotically inactive starch zapobіgє pіdvishennyu osmotic vise in chloroplastі. At night, if photosynthesis does not take place, the assimilation of starch for additional enzymes is transported to the candies and transported in the inner part of the roseline. Stock (secondary) starch to deposit in the amyloplasts the cells of the growth organs of the roslin (root, subterranean pagons, seeds) from the candies flowing from the photosynthetic cells. If necessary, spare starch can also be transformed into zukru.

Osvita stromal grains to be repaired at the singing points of the plastid stroma, called educational centers... Grain growth is carried out by the way of the last the lighting center... The amount of light balls in one grain can be a large indicator of light breaking, and it can be seen under a microscope - sharuvati starchy grains. Roztashuvannya Sharіv Mozhe Buti concentric(Wheat) abo eccentric(Cartoopia) ( Small. 2.10). There is one illumination center in the amiloplast, near which starch balls are added, then a vineyard simple grain, If two or more - then pretend hard, Scho store yak bi z decilkoh simple. Semi-hard to pretend to that kind of thing, as if a little bit of starch is deposited around the decimal points, and then, when simple grains are drawn, there are small balls around them ( Small. 2.10).

The shape, size, number in the amiloplast and budov (the position of the lighting center, the sharpness, the appearance or the visibility of the trunks) of tiny grains are often specific for the type of dewline ( Small. 2.10). The name of the starchy grains is spherical, egg-like or lenticular in shape, the protea of ​​the cartoplin is incorrect. Most grains (up to 100 microns) are characteristic of keratin bulb cartoplas, in wheat grains, the stench of two sizes is dry (2-9 microns) and large (30-45 microns). For corn grain of corn, typical grain (5-30 microns). Folded starchy grains in rice, veins, buckwheat.

Small. 2.10. Tiny grains of different types of roslin: A - potato; B - wheat; B - oats; G - rice; D - corn; E - buckwheat; 1 - simple grain; 2 - folding grain; 3 - semi-complex grain.

With a reagent for starch є the solution of iodine in the range of calcium iodide - react_vLyugol... Wine barbecues starchy grains in blue-violet color.

The introduction of starch is widely widened in all organs of the dewline, albeit especially bagati їm nasinnya, pahonya pahony (bulbi, cybulini, root leaves), parenchyma of the provincial tissues of the roots and stalk of village dews.

Lіpіdniekaplі it is practical to develop in all the growing cells. Fatty oils accumulate in the majestic collection of roselinas and for their meanings є in a different form of starch in the form of spare lively speeches. Especially there is a lot of fruit on them. Nasinya deyakikh roslin (sonyashnik, bavovnik, arachis) can reveal up to 40% of oil as a mass of dry speech. That grows fat to obsess, head rank, from today.

Lipid drops accumulate without a median in the hyaloplasm. The stench is visible like spherical spherical skin, the skin speck is adherent to the hyaloplasm by the membrane. Inodi lіpіdnі dots name spherosome.

Fat-based reagent oil є barvnik SudanIII, Lіpіdnі drops are fought in an orange-red color.

bіlkovі included in viglyadі amorphous amorphous abnormally crystalline inserts are set in the small organelles of the cell. Most often white crystals can be grown in the nucleus, and later - in the hyaloplasm, the stroma of plastids, in the enlarged cisterns of the endoplasmic hedgehog, the matrix of peroxisomes and mitochondria. The size of white crystals is most often located behind the boundaries of the separate building of the light microscope.

Spare bottles are classified as simple ones - proteiniv, On the vidminu from the folding bilkiv - proteids, SHO store the base of the protoplast. The most smelly stink is deposited in the storage fabric and dry cloth in the viglyad aleurone grain, abo squirrels.

Aleuron grains develop into a spherical shape and small size (0.2-20 microns). The stench is soaked with a membrane and an amorphous white matrix is ​​replaced, in which crystalline inclusion there is one (more, 2-3) white crystal of rhombohedral form and round globoidi(From one to bagatooh) ( Small. 2.11). Globoid are stored in phytin (salts of inosithexaphosphoric acid) and in the amount of storage of reserve phosphorus. Aleuron grains, how to avenge crystals, call foldable... The stench is characteristic for storing cells of oily roslin (lion, sleepyhead, harbuz, girchitsa, ricina, etc.). grow older simple aleuronic grains, not to revenge crystals, but only amorphous blocks (beans, rice, corn) ( Small. 2.12).

Small. 2.11. Aleuron grains in cells of ricini endosperm:cr- white crystals; ch- globoid; ma- white matrix.

The spare bottles for the hour of development are deposited in the vacuole. When the weather is ripe, it’s supervising the heat, the big vacuoles hang out, the big ones and the phytin go out of control in the siege and can crystallize. When germinating, the aleuronic grains glaze the water, swell and gradually transform into a type of vacuole. Bilki and speeches of globoids are vitrized on the growth and development of the seedling.

Small. 2.12. Simple aleuronic and tiny grains in the crumbled seeds of leavened leaven: 1 - simple aleuronic grains; 2 - starchy grain.

Bilkovi included can be filled with Lugol's reagent in a golden color.

Crystalline oxalate often occur in growing clitines. The stench appears only in the vacuoles. The form of crystals of calcium oxalate to finish is adaptable ( Small. 2.13) and is often specific for singing dews, so it can be used to diagnose lykarskoy dews. Tse can bootie single crystals rhomboedric, octahedral or podovzhenoi form (leaf bleak), friends- small sprouts of crystals of kulyastoy form (leafing argue, dope, canopy, rhubarb root), Rafidu- other small parts of crystals, selected in bundles (leaves of a conval, root of madder), styloidit- large, stick-like crystals (conval leaves) and crystal sand- the purchase of deceased single crystals (leaves of belladoni). Friends often meet.

Small. 2.13. Form crystals of calcium oxalate: 1,2 - Rafidu (1 - side view, 2 - side view); 3 - druse; 4 - crystal shot; 5 - single crystal.

Bridging of fibers in the bark or bridging of leaf veins near a row of roslin (oak bark, licorice root, canopy leaves) crystal-bearing lining- rostasovani parallel rows of cells with single crystals of calcium oxalate ( Figure 2.14).

Small. 2.14. Vein with crystal-bearing lining in canopy leaves.

On view of the food, as they see an excess of ions in the middle of the house at once from the cross, the growth, but not to blame the rogue organs of the vision, the noise accumulated in the tissues. Zvvazhayut vvazhayut, scho crystals of calcium oxalate - dintsevy product of vitality of clitini, signs for the production of excess calcium. Nicely, the crystals are set in great quantities in the quiet organs and tissues, as the growths are thrown off every hour (leaves and bark). However, dan, how crystals can be seen from vacuoles. In such a case, you can see how quickly you put in spare calcium.

The chemical nature of calcium oxalate crystals can be solidified by the concentration of mineral acids. From the acid and the hydrochloric crystal, it is razchinyayutsya. In the case of acid and hydrochloric calcium, oxalate transforms into non-crystalline calcium sulfate (hips), which confirms the number of small parts of the crystal.

Before crystal inclusion close prices... Smells are most often stored in calcium carbonate or silica, and they are grape-shaped lights, which can be seen on the top of a brick wall, in the middle of a brick ( Small. 2.15). Tsistoliti are characteristic for the growers of the homelands of the croppers, mulberries. The value of the citations is not yet clear.

Small. 2.15. Cystolite in the epidermy cells of the phycus leaf.

clitinna stinka

Klitinna stinka (klitinna obolonka)– characteristic sign roslinnaya klitini, which is the result of the cultivars of food. Klіtinna stinka nadaє klіtinі singular form. Cultivated on special livestock centers of the cricket roslin, in which the enzymatic path can be seen a stinka, it is necessary to take a spherical shape. Klіtinna stinka nadaє klіtinі mіtsnіst і preyє protoplast, vona vryvnu turgor vise і pereshkojaє, in such a rank, I cut plasmalemma. The suction of the cells is set up by the internal skeleton, which is adapted to the growth of the growth and the necessary mechanics.

Klіtinna stіnka bezbarvn і prozora, it is easy to skip the sleepy light. Call the walls with water. Behind the system of cell lines, there is a transport of low-molecular-weight spoluks (transport along the apoplast).

The clinic is stored in the main polysaccharides, which can be used for skeletal speechі talk to the matrix.

skeletal speech roslin's classics є cellulose (klitkovina), Shuo is beta-1,4-D-glucan. Tse naiposhirenishe organic speech biosphere. Molecules of cellulose є even more unpalatable lantsyuga, the stench grows in parallel one to one in groups of dozens and scraps of numerical watery ties. As a result, they pretend microfibrils They create the structural frame of the wall and enhance the technology. Microfibrillated cellulose can be seen only through an electronic microscope, the diameter of the door is 10-30 nm, the maximum range is decile microns.

Cellulose is insoluble and does not swell in water. Vona is even more energetic in chemical production, not to be found in organic growers, concentrated meadows and diluted acids. Microfibre cellulose elastic and even better for roasting (similar to steel). The power is to start a wider storage of cellulose and products. Svitova products of bovine fiber, which can be stored in bulk from cellulose, become 1.5 10 7 tons per ric. With cellulose, wash dry powder, acetate shovel and viscose, cellophane, papir. Carry out the reaction to cellulose with a reagent chlorine zinc iodine, cellulosic clitinna stinka zaparvlyuєtsya in blue-violet color.

In skeletal fungi with a clerical tongue є hіtin- polysaccharide, stimulation from excess glucosamine. Hіtyn shche bіlsh mіtsny, nіzh cellulose.

Microfibrillated into amorphous matrix, Zazvychay is a plastic gel filled with water. Matrix is ​​a collapsible sum of polysaccharides, molecules that are stored from surplus of small candies and are more short, lower than cellulose, and lancet shades. Matrix polysaccharides represent such a power of the class, as there is a strong swelling capacity, and penetration for water and solutions in low molecular weight sources, cation exchange power. Polysaccharide matrix to be divided into two groups - pectinі hemicellulosis.

pectin swell strongly or break near water. The stench is easy to ruin from a day of meadows and acids. The most simple representatives of pectin pectic acid- products of polymerization of alpha-D-galacturonic acid (up to 100 units), tied with 1,4-links in line lantsyugi (alpha-1,4-D-galacturonan). Pectinic acids (pectin)- a whole lot of high molecular weight (100-200 units) polymeric compounds of alpha-D-galacturonic acid, in which carboxyl groups are partially methylated. pectatiі pectinati- calcium and magnesium salts of pectin and pectinic acids. Pectinic acids, pectates and pectinates in water in the presence of suckers and organic acids in the form of alkaline gels.

In the main presence of the roselin protopectinis- high-molecular polymerimethoxylated polygalacturonic acid with arabinanam and galactanam, in dvodnykh roslin before the warehouse of galacturonan lantsyugs, there is a small amount of rhamnosi. Protopectinum nerves in water.

hemicellulosis they are lancers, prompting from surplus neutral candies, often glucose, galactose, manose, xylose are developing; polymerization steps 50-300. Hemicellulosis is chemically stable, less pectin, the stench is more important to hydrolyze and swell less near the water. Hemicelyulosis can be deposited in the walls of seedlings in the capacity of spare rivers (fig palm, persimmon). Pectin speech and hemi-cellulose are tied with mutual transitions. In addition to polysaccharides, in the matrix of cells there are specific structural blocks. Vin of dressings from surplus of Arabinose zukru and also to a glycoprotein.

Matrix polysaccharides do not just fill the gap with cellulose microfibrils. Їх lantsyuga roztashevuyutsya orderly and set the numerical links, both one to one, and from microfibrils, which means the flavor of the cliché.

Clint of roselin is often given to cheeky snacks. woody, abo lіgnіfіkatsії fall into the same category as in the matrix lignin- polymeric knowledge of phenolic nature, indifferent to water. The woody style of the wall takes on the elasticity, quickly increases its hardness and performance on the grip, decreases the penetration for driving. Reagents for lignin є: 1) phloroglucinolі concentrated salt abo sirchan acid(Zderev'yanіlikh stinki pour cherry-chervone barn) і 2) sulfatanilina, From the beginning of the tree, the trees melt into lemon-gingerbread. Lіgnіfіkatsії is characteristic for the walls of the wedge tissue of the xylem (wood) and the mechanical tissue of the sclerenchy.

obkorkuvannya, abo suberinization to be seen as a result of the application from the inner side of the policy of hydrophobic polymers - suberinaі wax... Suberin is a sum of ethers of polymeric fatty acids. Monomers of wax є fatty alcohol and wax efir. It is easy to win with organic razchinniki and quickly melt, setting crystals. Suberin is amorphous, does not melt and does not break in organic razchinniki. Suberin and visk, ready to flaunt the parallel balls, whistle all the empty cells from the inner side at the viglyadi plyvka. Suberina plyvka is practically impenetrable for water and for gases, therefore, when a client is approved, you will be welcomed by the world. Obkorkuvannya is typical for stinok clitin curved fabric traffic jams. With a reagent on a corked cell є Sudan III, Zabarvlennya orange-chervona.

Кутінізаціі there are new styles of clinging fabrics of epidermi. Kutinі whisk put on balls, scrying on the last surface of the clitine wall at the viglyadi plyvka - cuticles... Kutin is fatty polydimensional, close in chemical nature and power of suberin. The cuticle protects the dewline from the deep vaping of water from the surface of the dewline. Pofarbuvati її can be reagent Sudan III in orange-red color.

mineralization The clichés are seen as deposited in the matrix of a great amount of mineral rechains, most often silica (silicon oxide), before oxalate and calcium carbonate. Mineral speeches give strength and crispness. Supplementation with silica is typical for clitin epidermi of horsetails, sedges and cereals. As a result of the silicification, the stiffness of the stem and the leaves serve as a deterioration against the rivliks, and also significantly reduces the consumption and fodder value of the roses.

The children of the specialty clientele spontaneously licking classic style. At the same time, the substitution of cellulose second-hand food is taken from amorphous, strongly hydrated acidic polysaccharides in viglyadas slimeі gums, Close to the chemistry nature to pectin rechovins. Slime good razchinyayutsya at the water with the statements of mucus razchiniv. Gum sticky, twisted in threads. Dry viglyadi smells like a horny consistency. When the slime is inserted, the protoplast gradually moves up to the center of the cell, and the vacuole changes step by step. Deadly, empty cells can be fully stocked with mucus, and the cells are vidmira. In some cases, mucus can pass through the primary cell wall to the surface. In synthesis and secretion, the main fate is taken by the Golgi apparatus.

How to see the tall clays of mucus vicon development functions... So, the mucus of the root chohlik serves as a yak, lodging in the ground. The mucus traps of the coma roslin (crabgrass) see the slime trap, until the coma sticks. Slime, which can be seen as called clitines of the seedlings (lion, quince, plantains), closes the seed on the surface of the ground and preserves the sprout from the hanging. The mucus is filled with a reagent methylene blue in black color.

Seeing gum get sick with injured roselin. For example, gum removal from wounded dalyanoks of stoves and giloks is often spared from cherries and plums. Cherry glue is the gum. visconu gum I'll write down the function, Closing the wound from the surface. Gum is mainly established in the village of roslin from the homelands of legumes (acacia, tragacanth astragalus) and pink flowers of plum trees (cherry, plum, apricot). Comedies and slime vikoristovyu in medicine.

Clitinna stinka is a product of protoplast life. Polysaccharide matrix, glycoprotein stems, lignin and slime are set in the Golgi apparatus. Synthesis of cellulose, illumination and organization of microfibrils, use the plasmalemma. A great role in the arrangement of microfibrils is to lay on the microtubules, which grow in parallel with the microfibrils spreading close to the plasmalemma. As soon as the microtubules are zruynuvati, only one of the izodimetric cells are set up.

The education of the clerical style is to be repaired before an hour is passed by the clergy. Near the square, there is a single plate, a single ball, a ball for two daughters. It will be stored from pectin rivers, which may be like a consistency; cellulose vіdsutnya. The grown-up clittsi klitinna pay for the payment, ale the zaznaє zmіn, they call it middle, abo multiple payment (multiple speech)(Small. 2.16). The middle plate is even thinner and more uncomfortable to grow.

Immediately after the approval of the cell protoplast plate in the daughter cells, I repair the cell plate. It is deposited in the middle of the yak on the surface of the cell plate, as well as on the surface of the cell wall, which lay before the mother cell. Pislya podilu klitina enters the phase of growth of growth, which is the accumulation of intensive osmotic clinging of wedge water, we will tie it to the formulations and growth of the central vacuole. The turgor grip fixes the stretch, but it doesn’t break because of the fact that new portions of microfibrils and speeches to the matrix are continually added to it. The introduction of new materials to the material will be added equally to the entire surface of the protoplast, so that the culture of the classroom will not change.

Walls to grow and grow to name first... Stink to revenge a lot (60-90%) of water. In dry speech, matrix polysaccharides (60-70%) are fermented, instead of cellulose, 30% are not fermented, lignin during the day. The thickness of the primary stem is narrower (0.1-0.5 microns).

For the bagatokh clitin, the clitin is attached at once to the clintin. Such cells are otochened with a thin primordial style to the end of life ( Small. 2.16).

Small. 2.16. Parenchymal cells from the primordial stem.

In the case of the small cells, the plates are removed and the residual size is increased by the cells. At the same time, the walls are growing, and the obsyag, yaku grabbed the empty clitine, will speed up. I will name such a process second-guessing pictures, and the picture itself is called secondary(Small. 2.17).

The second wall can be seen as a Yak Dodatkov, where the vicon is the head of the mechanic, supporting function... The very second point is indicative of the power of wood, textile fibers, and paper. Secondary avenge is significantly less than a lead, a lower one; in them, they mix microfibrils of cellulose (40-50% of the mass of dry speech), which are grown in parallel, one to one. The polysaccharides in the matrix are characteristic of hemicellulosis (20-30%), and there are very few pectin streams. Secondary classifications, as a rule, are susceptible to lignification. In non-lignified secondary stinkas (lub'yani fibers lionu, hairs bavovnik), the change in cellulose can reach 95%. Great vmіst and the order of microfibrils is strictly ordered. mechanical power secondary walls. Often the clients, who ask for the second time on the tree line, when the second time is completed, they return.

The middle plate is glued together with the susceptible cells. Yaksho її razchiniti, stinki kіtin vrachayut calls one by one and rose. The process is called maceration. Achieve a very natural maceration, when the pectin of the middle plate is transferred to the rosette for the additional enzyme pectinase and then absorbed by water (overripe fruits of pear, din, peach, banana). Often, a piece of maceration is promoted, when the middle plate does not break out on all surfaces, but instead of clitin in the cuttings. As a result of the turgor grip of the susceptible clitini in cich mice, it becomes rounded, as a result of which it becomes intercellular spaces(Small. 2.16). The intercellulars make up one piece of hair, like vaping with vapors and gases. In such a rank, the intercellular spaces are used for gas exchange.

characteristic particularity Secondary style - її Inerіvnomіrne laid on top of the original style, as a result of which the second option lacks non-thickened dіlyanka - pori... As the secondary wall is not within the reach of great comrades, it is impossible to see how many others are lost. The clientele has a tedious secondary wall of time in the development of the radial channels, so that they can go from the empty clinker to the primordial wall. For the shape of the pore canal, there are two types of poros - simple and about edging(Fig. 2.17).

Small. 2.17. tipi pir: A - cells with secondary walls and numerical simple pores; B - a pair of simple pir; B - a pair of lamellar pir.

Have simple pyr the diameter of the pore canal along the entire length is the same and the shape of the high-pitched cylinder. Simple pores are characteristic of parenchymal cells, bast fibers and woody fibers.

Pori in two sumy rooms, as a rule, one against one. Tsі zagalnі pori look out over one channel, divided by a thin partition from the middle plate and the primordial style. Such is the number of two peaks of summery glasses, which I will name pari pir and functions as one goal. Rozdilyaє їkh channel dilyanka stinki be called zamika pori film, abo pore membrane... In living cells, the pore water is permeated with numerical plasmodesmami(Small. 2.18).

plasmodesmi lured only by the weed clitines. The stench is a heavy cytoplasm that overwhelms the wall of summery cells. The number of plasmodesmas in one cell is even greater - from hundreds to tens of thousands, you can call plasmodesms into groups. The diameter of the plasmodesmenny channel is 30-60 nm. Yogo stinka is shown by a plasmalemma, without interruption from the plasmalemma of sumy cells. At the center of plasmodesmi, there is a membrane cylinder - central rod, Without interruption with membranes of elements of endoplasmic fissure of both cells. Between the central core and the plasmalemma in the canal is the hyaloplasm, without interruption with the hyaloplasm of the sum of cells.

Small. 2.18. Plasmodesmi with an electronic microscope (scheme): 1 - for late vision; 2 - on the transverse view; pl- plasmalemma; CA- the central swift of the plasmodesmi; EP- element of the EPR.

In such a rank, protoplasts are usually isolated from one type of one, and are distributed through the channels of plasmodesmata. It is followed by a small transport of ions and other molecules, as well as hormonal stimulation. Behind the additional plasmodesm of protoplasts klin in roslinny organ_zmі make one tsile, called symplast, And the transport of rivers through the plasmodesmi is called simplastic on vidminu vid apoplastic transport along cells and between cells.

Have oblyamovani pir(Small. 2.17) The channel is loudly sounding in the process of adding a cell, to the inner opening of the cell, which means to go into the empty cell, which means it’s great, below the call, to run into the original wall. Broken pores are characteristic of early-grown cells of water-supply elements of the tree. They have a porous canal at right up to the limiting pore expands in a funnel-like manner, and the second wall hangs in the view of the ridge over the widened part of the canal, fixing the pore chamber. The name of the oblyamovaniya poryaduvayetsya that, when looking out from the surface of the inner opening of a small cola, or a high school, so as the invisible opening as a biosupply of the inner one of a large cola

Let's lay down the transport in

Lecture: Peculiarities of Roslinnaya Klitini

Sumarny chemical warehouse may be the same.

Similarity to the food cottage: the appearance of the membrane, cytosol, nucleus, and specific organelles.

However, among the various types of eukaryotes, there are 2 indications in Budov: the manifestation of specific organoids and metabolism.

At the house of Russia є central vacuole... The vacuoles of the growing clitin scatter the excess water, swell it up, and stretch the clitin until it stretches, the vacuole borrows a larger part of the clump of the clitine, and the plant cells will not get too thin and heavy cytoplasm through the entire clump. For growing cells, serve as an economical way to improve their development. At the same time, there is less energy to be vitrificed, not at the time of such a zapovnennya ossayu with a lot of cytoplasm.

Young growing cells can have a few vacuoles, which in the world of growing cells get angry one by one and create one or a few great vacuoles, which take up to 90% of all cells. With a whole organelle, it grows to the periphery of the cell, and the nucleus, also. Vacuole membrane - tonoplast. Vacuole emptying is filled with cellin juice, which is an aqueous solution of inorganic salts, candies, organic acids and salts, bile, low molecular weight products.

Head function of the central vacuole- pidtrimannya turgor vise. It starts with the release of vacuoles in the juice of the vacuole molecules, which increase the osmotic concentration. Concentration is due to the fact that the vacuole is functional in the strength of the structure, that the inner clutch of the clit is generated, and that it produces the miraculous and the tension. The tonoplast has an ATP-stagnant proton pump, which will prevent the transport of suckers, as well as there are іonny channels, which will prevent the ekrestiya (vivedennya) from vacuoles of their metabolism. The concentration of protons in the juice is similar to the acidic medium 2-5pH. The central vacuole secures the accumulation of spare living words - tsukrіv and bіlkіv. Nadezhdennya cich rechovinas are tied with the construction of membranes in conjunction with the tonoplast. In the middle vacuoles of the cinnamon juice, the sap can be absorbed and the process of over-etching, so that the hydrolytic enzyme takes place, with the whole tonoplast form of the secretory puffy, the stinks are split off as vacuoles, which are changed by the bulging Stink and vikonuyut і reactions of the autophatic cycle, avoid the fate in the hydrolysis of a defect-like condition.

Klіtinna stinka roslin.

To form for the fate of plasmalemma. Є pozaklіtinnym bagatosharovym otvorennymi, scho seize the surface of the clitini, being by the very essence of yogo called skeleton. It is built from two structures: a frame (from threads fibril or cellulose) and a gel-like matrix. The matrix contains polysaccharides before the warehouse: hemicellulosis and pectinic speech. Hemicellulosis are polymeric lancers, which are stored in hexoses (glucose, manose, galactose), can be buty and pentose (xylose, arabinose) and uronic acid (glucuronic and galacturonic). The components of hemicelluloses can be found among themselves in different types of hemicelluloses, making them a versatile combination. Ale lantsyuga of hemicellulose molecules of nicoli do not crystallize, and they do not flicker (do not appear) fibril. To seek a lot of water.

Pectini. It is a heterogeneous group, which includes rosacea, strongly hydrotated polymers, which carry negative charges through the manifestation of a free excess of galacturonic acid.

Zavdyaki cim to the components, the matrix is ​​a plastic pulp, yaka is a base (frame).

Ore polymeri cellulose are packed in microfibres for additional watery ties. Doday rigidity and taste. Between them, you can hear the sounds, like transforming the classic wall into a monolith. These are tied microfibre cellulosis with pectins. The stench can interfere with calcium, silicon. Scho doda zhorstk_st. For the development of the gel-like structure, the matrix will prevent diffusion of water and small molecules.

There are 3 types of classifications: first, second, third.

Primary wine is stored for 90% of carbohydrates. When a clitin is diluted, a bunch of microtubules appears in the equatorial area of ​​a clitin, which are shattered between small chromosomes (phragmoplast). In the middle of the microtubules, a lot of small bulbs of the vacuolar system, KG, grow, in the central part of the phragmoplast, they repair one by one. Foldable flattenings of the disc or the middle plate. It is stored in polysaccharide - kallesi. It is more elastic in terms of cellulose (do not take revenge in the middle of the KG bulb, but pretend on the plasmalemma). The KG bulbs have the components necessary to induce the membranes of two daughter cells. The process of evil of other vacuoles is to walk towards the center of the cell to the periphery and to the quiet, as long as the membrane bulbs are angry, they will not lie down on the surface of the cell.

The growing primary cell is stored as much as 3 balls (the middle plate, which is stored from the amorphous matrix, and 2 peripheral ones, to replace the hemicellulose and fibrils). The original sheath pretends to be able to see hemi-cellulose and fibril cellulose with two new cell structures. The improvement of the international culture will be seen for the activity of the daughter cells, as the skin on its side will see the words of the skin of the skin, and will bring all the new and new layers to the table. On the plasma membrane, cellulose fibrils are synthesized and polymerized, so that they can be produced to the end of the second classroom (we need a form of residual form). As soon as the wine grows, it is completed by being modified with linin, a hydrophobic polymer, synthesized for the oxidation polymerization to three excess aromatic alcohols and serve as the main components of 20 Leaders with their own hydrophobic character are lignin with hydrophobic insulation in the walls and serve as an additional strengthening material. Klіtina stinka wood, or corking (for rakhunok Kutina and suberina). On the surface of the cells of the epidermis, a viscous is seen on the surface of the cells.

In fungi, chitin (N-acetylglucosamine).

Plastida.

The overwhelming power of our plastids:

Refined with two membranes, as it is easy to wiggle along all surfaces of organoids.

Internal vmist - stroma. In new membranous discs were established as a result of invagination and budding of the inner membrane discs. The CDs are called thylakoid, the stink of the building can be folded into piles (edges). The stench vzaєmod_yut with the fourth type of membranes - Lamela.

Plastida volodyut vlny genome, Skin plastid has many copies of cyclone DNA, so it can take close to 100 gene. Genome code of the library, required for displaying special functions. Immediately, RNA cells are found to take part in the transcription and translation. Smells are seen in plastids, or a larger part of these cells lodge in the nuclear genome. The cytoplasm is synthesized in the cytoplasm and is imported into the middle of the plastids.

The plastid is not tied to the other organelles by vesicular links.

Plastida is a series of mutually reworking.

Proplastid -> leukoplasts -> chloroplast -> chromoplasts.

Leukoplasts can be transformed into: amiloplasts, elayoplasts, aleuronic grains and chromoplasts.

Chloroplast.

May vidzhenu form, size 2-4 microns., And dovzhina can be 10 microns. Chromatophoria (the majesty of chloroplasts).

The internal space of the chloroplast is the lumen. 2 important phenomena: photosynthesis, energy synthesis. The characteristic feature of the thylakoid membrane is the presence of chlorophyll, the appearance of a quantity of sleepy light, and the transformation of energy into chemistry. The chanting of the light with the singing hvily is to produce chlorophyll to the point. Vin go to zbudzheniy stan. The energy of the active chlorophyll is transferred through a number of intermediate stages to the transfer of electrons to the synthesis of ATP and the renewal of the carrier, which is є 2 mononucleotides (NAD and FAD). Energy is spent on the synthesis of carbon dioxide and synthesis of sugar.

Photosynthesis: light and dark phase.

The light phase of countering the light on the lights is tied to the lighting of the light with the help of the pigment and the chemistry reaction - Hill's reaction.

In the dark phase, there is a fixation and renewal of carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere), which leads to the synthesis of carbon dioxide, AMC and other words. As a result of the light phase, the process of phosphorylation, the synthesis of ADP and ATP, is observed. And also the renewal of the carrier is carried out during hydrolysis and photolysis of water.

In the light phase of photosynthesis, the energy of the sleepy light zbuzhuh elektroni chlorophyll. The stench is transported along the components of the oxide lance in the thylacoid membrane, possibly before being electronically transported along the dical lance in the mitochondria. In chloroplasts, protons are pumped from the stroma (pH = 8) into the lumen (pH = 5) flashing gradients in 3 units of pH. The whole gradient of the proton flap on the proton membrane proton-rupture with a force of 200 mW, alevona may be completely surrounded by a gradient of pH. At the time of the dumb lance, the mitochondria of the electrons collapse in a straight line. Electroni are taken from the drive, with її photolіzі and transmitted to the carrier with vitrates of energy. Including in the light phase of the mamo: the synthesis of the ATP molecule and the innovations of the carrier. The offense of the product is vicious in the dark stage.

At the dark stage, for the development of the updated NAD and ATF, the approval of carbohydrates is observed. The whole process of access to parts. There is a lot of enzymes on the New Shore. Calvin cycle. The increase in the number of chloroplasts, and the development of the largest forms of plastids, are formed from structures-interspersed (proplastids).

Proplastid two-membrane bulbs, without characteristic Figs. The stench comes from vacuoles by the cytoplasm larger in size, showing two membranes. The proplastid is rosted in the tissue of the roslin. The number of proplastids is increasing by the way of the day and the brunch. Under normal illumination, proplastids are transformed into chloroplast (to grow in size, to see the establishment of later expanded membrane folds. As soon as the stench develops in the temperate, then a lot of plastids are added, but the system of internal membranes does not fizzle out, there is a lot of other bulbs, which are bought up in the vicinity of the warehouse, but the bulk of these forms In these membranes protochlorophyll (zhovtoy kolora) takes place, after the light from them chloroplast is established and protochlorophyll can be transformed into reference chlorophyll (membranes, a component of the transfer lancet), are synthesized.

Leukoplast. They appear as chloroplasts. The stench is found in the cells to store fabrics. Through them, unassigned morphology is important to differentiate from proplastids. The stench can be seen in lamellas, alope to the establishment of normal tilakoid structures. At the same time, the stench accumulates additional additional materials. If it is a carbohydrate, then the leukoplast is molded in the amilloplast (in the same place there can be buty proteins in the form of aleuronic grains). And yaksho fat - elayoplasty.

The process of development of chloroplasts and changes in chloroplasts and spostering in the development of peels and ripening of fruits. Plastids accumulate additional membranes, chlorophyll and starch are ruined. When lamellas are ruptured, there are lingual dots, in which the pigments (carotenoids) appear and the change of farming appears. Chromoplasts are a degenerate form of plastids, which are tied to the prolapse of lipoprotein complexes.

The genome of plastids.

Vlasna genetic system will prevent the synthesis of proteins, which are localized in the middle of the plastids themselves (the cells of the thylacoid membrane). Mayut up to 60 microns. 1.3 * 10 8 Nekhai. The initial triviality of the cycle and the speed of the replication does not go astray. DNA does not have any structure. All characteristics of the chloroplast molecule are close to the characteristics of procarotes. The specificity of chloroplast DNA is manifested in the fact that the basic regulatory processes of transcription are the same for them. Synthesis of all types of RNA. DNA of chloroplasts in the RNA code of ribosomes. Segmentation constants of ribosomes 70S. Stink to revenge 17S and 23S. Sensitive to antibiotics (chloramphenicol).

Lecture: Multiple contacts

Symbiotic theory.

Cominzin and Mereshkovskiy.

On the cinnamon of the central theory, we can speak of a divine similarity in the buds of chloroplasts and blue-green algae. The similarity with the main functions, practically the same health before the photosynthetic processes. As a result of the symbiosis of the growing prokaryotic cells, the nuclear (eukaryotic) cells. As a matter of fact, until the beginning of the Hypotis eukarotic clitine, a few stages of symbiosis with the other clitines have passed through their development.

At the first stage, cells of the type of anaerobic heterotrophic procarotes became the rulers for aerobic bacteria, which called for the approval of aerobic procarotes (mitochondria, all the middle cychs of procarotes). In parallel to the whole process in the cell-phase, the prokaryotic nuclear apparatus (genophore) is formed into a precipitate from the cytoplasm of the nucleus. So they could win heterotrophic eukaryotic cells. Such a cell enters into repeated symbiosis. For example, from spirochetes or plait-like bacteria. The inclusion of a number of symbiotics has called for the diagnosis of jguty and viyok in heterotrophic eukaryotes. І as a result of additional chasing. Tse summoned up to the winninennya tvarin eukarіotіv, Mayut dzhgutiki. Such an organism, at once, has become clouded and blue-green water growth and has called for the approval of the plastids and the approval of the growing clitine. The hypothesis of endosimbotic walking of intramembrane organoids is not a matter of course. Due to the numerical facts of true endosymbiasis of blue-green algae and the clin of the lower roslin and the most simple, they function perfectly well, to prevent the clitine-owner with the products of photosynthesis. Forward. Infusoria is a shoe, in a new bag is the water content of Chlorel. Chloroplasts can be picked up by children and vikorists as endosimbionti. Kolovertki, gnawing in waterweed. Chloroplasts are found in all the middle clines of herbaceous plants and continue their functions.

Features of the functions of growing cells. Methods for the synthesis of organic speech - autotrophic harvesting.

Clitini roslin because of the lack of clarity of the clerical style does not allow the roslinny clitin to change its shape and change. The first cells of the roslin compensate for the visibility of the roach, so that they can synthesize themselves, so that they are autotrophs. Roslin grows with a stretch of life, the meristems constantly spread, establish new cells, all grows are introduced to modular organisms. Їх residual living form lies in the midst of the midst. Klitini roslin may have special features and anti-mitosis:

The position of the new clerical style. Beginning back to the establishment of the spindle, while the spindle itself does not take part in the roasting of the cell. Even before mitosis in the G 2 phase of the cell cycle, a specific structure is established in the cell line, which is called the preprophase cell. It forms out of the microtubule of the cortex (cytoskeleton) in a wide-sized male, which will drain the clytin. The kernel will become intact (integral). In the area of ​​\ u200b \ u200bthink, actinic flames are picked up, which will prevent it from ringing until quietly, unless a small bundle of microtubules near the nucleus is re-created in good design. The structure of the wheel is trimmed, in each case and spokes it is folded into a microtubule and actin, and the core is fitted with a sleeve. The structure of the ring is filled with elements of EPR and KG. At the early stage of mitosis, the microtubules of the preprophase cyclone are depolymerized and ruptured. In the telophase, a new stage is established exactly in the same area, as a bulwark is designated by a prephase ring.

The nucleus in the growing clitini collapses into the center of clitini, de-buuvatisya rozpodil. From the nucleus in the antennae, the cytoplasm expands directly into the nucleus. In the world, nastannya mitosis shari are angry with themselves, setting up an area there, before the pre-phase circle and the area is called a phragmosome.

In the roslin, the poles of the mitotic spindle do not have the center of the pole and are more diffuse in character. In other words, the smell is yak bi rosmiti. Prophase spindles are formed on the cob from the microtubule. It’s because of the ruining of the nuclear envelope that the spindle aspirations are established, and when the correct mitotic spindle is set up, there are no small cytoplasmic microtubules in the cells. What kind of a spindle is keru, why should we pretend? Chromosomes. Polymerization of microtubules occurs at a glance close to the chromosomes, which appear vipadkovo. Then the motor cells (dynein) sort the microtubules, the positive ones are sent to the chromosomes, allowing them to be attached to the kinetochores of the chromosomes, and with the negative ones, the microtubules are modulated. As a result of polymerization, sorting, attachment, a bipolar spindle is established. The nucleus infusion was infused with cytoplasm. When a new cell wall is laid, it’s supposed to start as a pre-phase circle. The link between the orinantation of the spindle and the new partition is not of a great character, like in the clines of the twins.

Goldzhi complex of roslinnykh cells. Functions: glycosylation (pervinne), sorting (podil), synthesis of polysaccharides of cellulite (except cellulose and callesi), delivery of enzyme complexes to the membrane (hexagonal rosettes, synthesis of cellulose), recirculation of vacuole transport of vesicles.

CG was localized in tall cells close to plasmas, distant from the nucleus, and rose-mediated in the view of the number of stacks of cisterns. All the elements of the complex are tied with Actin threads, which can be used to create a net, so that internal transport is secured. Actinov_ structures will make the ruggedness (together with myosin). In cells of roslin є there is a special myosin - myosin 8. Tsei myosin 8 does not fix filaments and accumulate in newly formed primary cells, in vesicles of CG there are polysaccharides and structural cells, which form the secondary cells.

Multiple contacts.

The contact function of the membranes will ensure the contact of the cells between themselves and with them. All cells in tissues are in contact with the lateral matrix. The late matrix takes part in the development of the integrity of the fabric and setting the ordering of the skeleton, in the middle of the cell and moving and interchanging one by one. Vzaєmodia kіtin zdіysnyuєtsya for the rakhunok of dots, as they are called mіzhklіtinnikh contacts.

Їх classification kіlka, in a simple way їх structure. Classification of Alberts and Gray (1986). As a matter of fact: contacts can be split into 3 groups.

Mechanic (= Adhesion). The binding of the clitin is one to one, because of the presence of glycoproteins in the membrane of clitin glycoproteins posed to the matrix. With adhesion between plasma membranes, the gap (20nm) is filled with glycocalyx. Without a median for the release of a client, one by one display of special CAM (cam) libraries: fibronectin, cadgerins, selectin, integrarini and іnshі bilki. Deyakі from them mate cells one by one for a rakhunok of intermolecular interactions. Інші approve special mіzhklіtinnі z'udnannya. Vzaimodya mіzh tsimi bіlkami can be homophilous, so that the susceptible cells in the whole vyadzuyutsya one by one after the other one-sided molecules. Abo heterophilous, if in adhesion they take on the fate of a kind of white blood on suspicious cells. But it’s more and more foldable, if there’s a small amount of connection to take care of the linker intermediate molecules. In addition to such simple calls, there is a number of special structures, such as specific functions (desmosomes). Smell vzaєmodiyut with elements of cytoskeleton. See 3 types of desmosomes: points, operate and semi-desmosomes.

Dots connect the cells one by one at the viewer buttons. Between the membranes, the clitin is varied from 22 to 35 nm. A fibrous matrix is ​​formed in the central part of the cell in the form of a fibrous matrix between cells for the formation of a species of the supramembrane complex, which is stored from the white globules. The stench is represented by mutually modulating integral membrane cells cadderinami and desmogleinami. Tsya platіvka interconnection with the membranes kіtіn with a system of transverse strands. On the side of the cytoplasm, another plate is formed from the desmoplakin block, which goes into a transverse straight line into the fibrillar structure, which can be carried up to 10 Nm to filaments (keratin filaments). The stars, the points of desmosomes, are seen in the hospitality, heart meats, endotelny vessels.

Operate desmosomy. Appearance between susceptible cells 15-20 nm. The central plate is so dumb. Alle є trans-membrane glucoprotein, which are used one by one and without the mechanical connection of membranes. On the side of the cytoplasm, thin Actin flames (6-7 nm) are bought. The stench is to lie bridle plasmalemmy and go along the entire perimeter of the cell. Functions: mechanic improvement of the client one by one; with fast actin filaments, the shape of the cell can be changed; you can choose the geometrical changes of the clitini; to transfer the mechanics of stress to the cells. Viklikana zmіnoy obsyagu klіtini.

Semi-desmosomes. Z'єdnannya klitin with microcrystalline matrix (For example, with a basal membrane). The functional role is mechanical, allowing you to showcase the epithelial layers of great mechanical activities. Desmosomi - dilyanki klin, ale the stench is not static illumination. The stink of dynamism. Zdatn_ know, I know. Celebrate the path of phagocentric reaction.

Lock (contact). The stench is characteristic of one-ball epithelia. The zone where the balls of the two plasma membranes are as close as possible. To that, when peering into an electronic microscope, the trisharov structure is visible. 2 new balls of both membranes are poured into one with a thickness of 2-3 nm. Not over the entire area of ​​the contact contact, but is a series of point interconnections of integral membranes. In the zones of mental contacts, 24 types of bricks were revealed. Coming from the membranes of the bilipid ball, so the bricks are re-melting, making a border (grati). On the side of the contact in the cytoplasm itself, there are a lot of fibrils (7nm), which grow parallel to the surface of the plasmalemma. Strong contacts are characteristic for the palatine and intestinal diseases. Smell to get the cellin out of you. In addition, there are molecular structures that regulate paracellular transport, so that the transport of rivers in the space between cells. Physical bars for transporting them to nature. They pass through mittєvo, and the іnshі components for passing through the slot contact take more than an hour (navіt godinnik).

The bar of penetration in the contact contact extends beyond the ball of the ball, which carries the charge, which also fixes the structure of fibrillary thread-like elements. They can pass through such pori, their size is not great. However, for the passage of the rozchinnih components, the blame for the deterioration of the integrity of the threads. The design elements open up the threads, while the stench is generated by the passing of molecules. This is how the molecule penetrates through the contact bar. In the structural and functional secondary contact, the plasmolemma is divided into 2 dylyankas (apical and basal) and the contact in the form of a septum;

Provide contacts. Rizzy at the creatures and the roslin.

There are 2 types of food cells: solid and chemical synthesis. Through wide contacts, molecules can pass from one cell to one. And in the chemistry of synthesis, the clitini does not seem to have a middle ring. Shilinny contacts are used by the commune (obtained) with the help of clinics. The whole structure, like taking care of the fate in the direct transmission of chemical substances. Typical for this type of contact is the proximity of the plasma membranes of two suspension cells at a distance of 2-3 nm. The size of the contact itself is 0.5-5 microns. It folds in 2 halves, the size of the skin half is 7-8nm, the stench spreads around the channel 1-2nm wide. I ci 2 halves are called connexoni (half-channels). The stench is stored in 6 subunits of the connectin. The molecular weight is about 30 thousand. By combining between them, the blocks form a cylindrical structure in two sizes, the number, size, and the size of the connections are strictly symmetric. Solid contacts allow for the great diffusion of molecules, weighing 1200 Daltons, including molecules of mass which are 2000 Daltons. The penetration of long-distance contacts is regulated by the open and close links to the channel. I will name the process gating (gate mechanism)... It is controlled by the change in the internal pH, by the flow of calcium ions or by direct phosphorylation of the subunits of the connection. Functions of long-distance contacts: conducting organic contacts inorganic speeches... (For example, in myocardial cells).

Conduct contacts with roslin є plasmodesmi. There are thin tubular cytoplasmic canals, which can contain 2 suspicious cells. The diameter of the channels in the range is 20 to 40 nm. The peculiarity of these channels: the plasma membrane of one cell passes into the plasma membrane of the other cell. The cylindrical tube of the desmotula is pulled along the axis of the channel from 1 cell to the bottom. Education and communication with the EPR client. The space between the desmotubule and the plasma membrane is filled with cytosol. Between the cells of the cells, the plasmalemma smoothly pass into the plasmodesmata and the membrane of the cells of the cells. As a result, the hyaloplasm of susceptible cells is brought into one system (symplast). I formally came underneath (one cell from the other). Vilny transport through the plasmodesmata is interconnected with a molecular weight of 800 Daltons. Establish a plasmodesmite on the stage of the primary formation of the middle plate from the elements of the EPR. At the same time, the number of plasmodesmas reaches up to 1000 per cell. When old, some of them will speed up, but the city will grow a little faster. Functional role: prevention of microcirculation of changes (they, tsukru, lively speech). Negative side - get lighter.

Vacuoli ROSLINNYKH KLITIN

Organels of zalny meaning, which can be used as a single-membrane principle only in cells of roslin.

Size and quantity: Visnakhayutsya vіkom klіtini. In young cells, vacuoles grow from other bulbs, emerged from the EPC. In the world of growth and differentiation of cells, other vacuoles get angry one by one and make one or more great vacuoles, which take up to 80% of the whole cell. As a result, the cytoplasm with the nucleus and organoids is brought to the periphery.

structure: central vacuole from the cytoplasm by a single membrane - tonoplast, Yakiy pod_bniy on trade with plasmolemma. Vacuole empty classic juice... Before the storehouse of cinnamon juice, there are inorganic salts, zucru, organic acids and salts, and low molecular weight solutions, as well as high molecular weight products (for example, bottles).

functions: 1) osmoregulation: Establishments for the penetration of tonoplast and plasmolemics are determined by the molecular concentration of the clitine juice, tobto vacuole function in the osmometer;

2) ekcretorn: Through the tonoplast, all waterborne products can be removed (alkaloids - nikotin, coffee; polyphenols);

3) storing: K +, Na +, Ca 2+ phosphates, salts of organic acids (oxalate, citrate and in.), Zukru and bіlki accumulate in the clitine juice.

ribosomy

Organoid, but not a membrane bud. A single organoid of zagalny meaning, which is a presence in cells such as prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Ribosomi vpershe bouli is described in 1955 m J. Palade (Granuli Palade), which is a dov, how stink is a ribonucleoprotein complex (RNP).

Cheerful nature: RNP= R-RNA + block.

On a small part of ribosomes to be brought 85% RNA, Presented in clients.

the form: the ribosome is mushroom-shaped, so it can be folded in two subunits: greatі few, Between them roztashovuєatsya functional center of ribosomy (FTSR) At any given hour, the biosynthesis of the protein (during the translation period) grows i-RNA in two triplets, and an enzymatic complex, which prevents the folding of the protein molecule from amino acids.

rosemary: 15 - 35 nm... The size of the common ribosomes of prokaryotes is 20x17x17 nm, of the eukaryotic ones - 25x20x20 nm.

Miscellaneous: I will illuminate subunits of ribosomes to be seen in the nuclei of the nucleus. The subunit in the whole of the ribosome appears in the cytoplasm when the concentration of ions in magnesium (Mg 2+) is 0.001M, as the concentration is meant to change, to be dissociated. If the concentration of Mg 2+ increases tenfold, reaching the value of 0.01m, two ribosomes and interchange one with one, a dimer is established.