What is the difference between the waters? Distinction of salts in water at room temperature
value salts within the framework of the theory of dissociation. Solit is accepted by the division into three groups: average, acidic and basic. In the middle salts, all atoms of an aqueous acid are substituted for a metal atom, in sour salts of stench, only a small amount is substituted, in the basic salts of the OH group, of the form of a partial substitution, for acid surpluses.
There are also some types of salts, for example sub-salt, in which there are two different cations and one anion: CaCO 3 MgCO 3 (dolomite), KCl NaCl (sylvinite), KAl (SO 4) 2 (alumokalіevі galun); zmіshanі salts, in which there is one cation and two additional anions: CaOCl 2 (abo Ca (OCl) Cl); complex salts, to enter the warehouse complex ion, how to fold from the central atom tied with a decalcom ligands: K 4 (zhovta bloodsil), K 3 (red bloodsil), Na, Cl; hydrated salt(Crystals), in which molecules avenge crystallization water: CuSO 4 5H 2 O (silver vitriol), Na 2 SO 4 10H 2 O (Glauber's sil).
The name of the salts Confirm with the name of anion, followed by the name of cation.
For salts of non-acidic acids, add suffix to the name of a non-metal id, for example sodium chloride NaCl, sulfide zaliza (H) FeS і ін.
When naming the salts of acidic acids to the Latin root, the name of the element is added in the development stages of oxidation. — am, in times of the lower stages of oxidation end -it. The names of the acids for the designated lower stages of oxidized non-metal have a prefix hypo-, for salts of chlorinated and manganese acids lane, for example: calcium carbonate CaCO 3, galiza (III) sulfate Fe 2 (SO 4) 3, zaliz (II) sulfite FeSO 3, calium hypochlorite KOCl, calium chlorite KOCl 2, calium chlorate KOCl 3, calium perchlorate KOCl 4, calium permanganate KMnO 4, Calcium dichromate Up to 2 Cr 2 O 7.
Acid and basic salts it is possible to look at the product of an incomplete perturbation of acids and foodstuffs. According to the international nomenclature, the atom is water, which should enter the warehouse of acidic salt, denote by the prefix hydro-, group OH - with a prefix hydroxy, NaHS - sodium hydrosulfide, NaHSO 3 - sodium hydrosulfite, Mg (OH) Cl - magnesium hydroxychloride, Al (OH) 2 Cl - aluminum dihydroxychloride.
The names of complex ions include ligands, ending with the name of metal from the meanings of the oxidized stage (in Roman numerals in the bows). In the names of complex cations, vikoristovyt Russian metal names, for example: Cl 2 - tetraamminmedi (P) chloride, 2 SO 4 - diamminesilver sulfate (1). For the names of complex anions, the Latin names for metals with sufix-at, for example: K [Al (OH) 4] - calcium tetrahydroxyaluminate, Na - sodium tetra hydroxychromate, K 4 - hexacatinoferrate (H)
Name the hydrated salts (kristallogridratov) Pretend in two ways. It is possible to use the system of names of complex cations, described by the system; for example, copper sulfate SO 4 H 2 0 (or CuSO 4 5H 2 O) can be called tetraaquamed sulfate (P). However, for the most common hydrated salts, most often the number of water molecules (steps of hydration) is given with a numeric prefix before the word "Gidrat", for example: CuSO 4 5H 2 O - pentahydrate of midi (I) sulfate, Na 2 SO 4 10H 2 O - sodium sulfate decahydrate, CaCl 2 2H 2 O - calcium chloride dihydrate.
salt dispersion
Due to the reliability of water, it can be divided into rozchinni (P), non-rooted (H) and low-rooted (M). For the value of the ratio of salts, use the table of the ratio of acids, bases and salts in water. If tables are not handled, then you can speed up the rules. Їх is easy to forget.
1. The range of all salts of nitric acid is nitrate.
2. Razchinnі all salts of hydrochloric acid - chlorides, crіm AgCl (H), PbCl 2 (M).
3. Roschinnі all salts of hydrochloric acid - sulfates, crіm BaSO 4 (H), PbSO 4 (H).
4. Retail sodium and calcium salts.
5. All phosphates, carbonates, silikates and sulfides, salts of Na are not recognized + i K + .
From the most cheery spoluks, they are the most numerous class of words. There are solid words, the stench is seen one form one after the color and the difference in the water. V cob XIX v. Swedish chemist І. Bercellius having formulated the value of salts as the products of the reactions of acids in the course of the reaction or the removal of the atoms in water in the acid by the metal. For a great deal of familiarity, they give out medium, acid and basic salts. Medium, or normal, salt - the whole product substitution of atoms in water in acid for metal.
for example:
Na 2 CO 3 - sodium carbonate;
CuSO 4 - sulphate mіdі (II) і etc. D.
Such salts are dissociated into cationic metal and anionic acid excess:
Na 2 CO 3 = 2Na + + CO 2 -
Acid salts - the whole of the product of an uncommon substitution of atoms in water in acids for metal. Before acidifying the salts, add, for example, NaHCO 3 feed soda, which is stored from the Na + metal cation and an acidic single-charge excess of HCO 3 -. For acidic calcium salt, the formula is written as follows: Ca (HCO 3) 2. The names of the salts are based on the names of the average salts with the additional prefix hydro- , For example:
Mg (HSO 4) 2 - magnesium hydrogen sulfate.
Acid salts are dissociated by the offensive rank:
NaHCO 3 = Na + + HCO 3 -
Mg (HSO 4) 2 = Mg 2+ + 2HSO 4 -
The main salt is the product of the non-identical substitution of hydroxyl groups in the form of acid surplus. For example, prior to such salts, the famous malachite (CuOH) 2 CO 3 can be traced, about which they read in the works of P. Bazhov. Wines are stored from two basic cations CuOH + and doubly charged anion of acidic excess CO 3 2-. The cation CuOH + maє charge +1, so there are two such cations in the molecule and one double-charged anion CO 3 2 - combined in an electrically neutral power.
Name such salts will be the same as for normal salts, ale with a prefix hydroxo, (CuOH) 2 CO 3 - hydroxocarbonate midi (II) or AlOHCl 2 - aluminum hydroxochloride. The majority of basic salts are non-corrosive or low-corrosive.
The rest dissociate like this:
AlOHCl 2 = AlOH 2 + + 2Cl -
the power of salts
The first two reactions were discussed in detail earlier.
The third reaction is also a reaction exchange. Vona opposes between the differences of salts and supervises against the siege, for example:
The fourth reaction of salts is tied to the position of the metal in the electrochemical series of metals (div. "Electrochemical series of metals"). Leather metal vitisnyaє from the salts of all other metals, Tse meet at the vison of advancing minds:
1) offending salt (and reacting, and accepting the result of the reaction) are guilty of being responsible;
2) they threw innocently about the water, which threw the head groups I and II groups (for the rest of the repairs from Ca), they threw them out of the salts.
Ways to remove salts
Ways to reject and chemical power of salts. Solit can be taken away from inorganic spoluks from a practical class. In a number of ways, salts of non-acidic acids can be eliminated in the case of non-mediated interaction of metal and non-metal (Cl, S, etc.).
A lot of salt when heated. However, ammonium salts, as well as those of salts of low-activity metals, weak acids and acids, in which elements show either the lower oxidation stages, and when heated, they open up.
CaCO 3 = CaO + CO2
2Ag 2 CO 3 = 4Ag + 2CO 2 + O 2
NH 4 Cl = NH 3 + HCl
2KNO 3 = 2KNO 2 + O 2
2FeSO 4 = Fe 2 O 3 + SO 2 + SO 3
4FeSO 4 = 2Fe 2 O 3 + 4SO 2 + O 2
2Cu (NO 3) 2 = 2CuO + 4NO 2 + O 2
2AgNO 3 = 2Ag + 2NO 2 + O 2
NH 4 NO 3 = N 2 O + 2H 2 O
(NH 4) 2 Cr 2 O 7 = Cr 2 O 3 + N 2 + 4H 2 O
2KClO 3 = MnO 2 = 2KCl + 3O 2
4KClO 3 = 3KSlO 4 + KCl
The power can be seen as a result, as a result of the reaction between acid and water, rather than water. In this distribution, the power of the salts, which are tied to the same equilibria, will be seen.
reactions of salts in water
Crumbs will be shown, but the difference is obvious to the understanding. However, for the purposes of a possible negotiation, we can roughly transfer all the salts on the basis of the water supply.
Deyakі salts, when resolved by water, establish a neutral solution. The Іnshі salts make up sour or puddles. The price is accompanied by a reverse reaction between salt ions and water, as a result of which the acid is bound or supplied. If it appears, the razchin salt is neutral, or sour, or it can be stored as a type of salt. At the same time, you have a sense of chotiri tipi salts.
Salts, set with strong acids and weak tastes. Salty type, when razchinenny in water, set sour raschin. Yak butt is induced by ammonium chloride NH4Cl. When deciding the price of salt in the water, Ion amoniyu din yak
The overwhelming number of H3O + ions, approved in the whole process, amalgamates the acid power.
Salt, established as a weak acidic and strong base. Solitary type, when detecting near water, can be used to establish a solution. Yak butt guided by sodium acetate CH3COONa1 Acetate-ion dіє yak pіdstavu, acceptmo proton from the water, yak вvytupaє in the form of acid:
Overwhelmed by the number of ONIV ONES, who establish themselves in the whole process, amalgamating the power of the conflict.
Salts, fixed with strong acids and strong bases. When razchinennі in water, salts of the tsiy type establish a neutral razchineniye. Yak butt is induced by sodium chloride NaCl. When discharged in water, the concentration of ions Na + appears to increase in concentration of ions Cl-. Oskilki not that, none of the ion does not enter into acid-base reactions with water, in the context of the approval of an excess amount of ions H3O + or OH. This will be neutral.
Salts, made with weak acids and weak food. The addition of salts of this type is ammonium acetate. When resolved in water, ammonium reacts with water as acid, and acetate-ion reacts with water as before. The offense of the reaction of the description of the food. The water solution is a salt, approved by a weak acid and a weak base, it can be weakly acidic, weakly lukewarm, or neutral in the presence of isolated concentrations of ions H3O + and OH-, which were made as a result of water reactions of cations and salts. It should be noted that there is a difference between the values of the dissociation constants of the cation and anion.
Water is one of the leading chemistry on our planet. Up to one of the most important authorities, the state of affairs shall be approved. And in many spheres of science and technology, the importance of salt in water plays an important role.
Good quality of health rіznіkh speeches Confirm with іdinam - razchinniki - one-tier (homogeneous) sumіshі. Itself obsyag material, which vikorisovu
For the building of the ruling class, they are classified by the offensive rank:
- until we use it, we can use it in 100 g of water and more than 10 g;
- until slightly soluble to lie, the number of such in the store does not change 1 g;
- the concentration of non-indigent in 100 g of water is less than 0.01.
In addition, if the polarity of the speech, how to be victorious for the solution, is analogous to the polarity of the speaker, it is very different. With different polarities, it’s better for everything, it’s impossible to make a speech.
Yak to see
If you talk about those who razchinyaetsya chi strong at water, then for more salts it is just hardening. There is a special table, as far as it is possible to accurately determine the value of the difference. So, as water is a universal outlet, it is good to go with the other ridges, gases, acids and salts.
One of the best tools for making a firm speech by the water can be used to make a practical skin day in the kitchen kitchen salt... So why is it that there is a difference between the waters?
From the school course of chemistry, it’s a lot of memory, that the molecules of water and salts are polar. Tse means that the electric poles of the prototypes, that will enhance the high electrical penetration. Molecules will give you a taste of their own speech, for example, like in the vypad we looked at, NaCl. At the same time, it’s a ridin, which is one-sided for its consistency.
inlet temperature
Find deyakі factor, scho pour on the razchinnіst salt. In pershu chergu tse the temperature of the razchinnik. Chim vona vishcha, tim more is the value of the efficiency of diffusion of particles in ridin, and mass transfer is faster.
If you want, for example, the difference in water with kitchen salt (NaCl) from the temperature is practically not stagnant, the level of efficiency is 35.8 at t 20 ° С and 38.0 at 78 ° С. go to work out better.
Until the last bureaucrats, which are injected into the discrepancy, are admitted to:
- The size of the particles is growing - with a large area, the size of the phases, the size of the distribution is higher.
- The process of mixing, such as with an intensive viconation of a greater effective mass exchange.
- The appearance of houses: one will accelerate the process of development, and, in the same time, accelerate diffusion, reduce the speed of the process.
Video about the mechanism of solving the salt
The table of the differences in salts, acids and pіdstav is the foundation, without which it’s uncomfortable to master chemistry knowledge. The difference between the basics and salts of supplementary help in the modern world is not only for schoolchildren, but for professional people... The development of bagatoo products in living cannot do without this knowledge.
Table of acidity, salts and water
The table of salt ratios and water availability is a guide to help you in mastering chemistry basics. Use the table below to help you on the way.
- R - vkazu on the line;
- H - not a razchinniy speech;
- M - the speech does not differ much at the water center;
- RK - the speech line is designed to work only when strong organic acids are injected;
- A dash will say about those who are not such a thing in nature;
- НК - to work out in acids, or in water;
- ? – sign of nutrition to talk about those who, on this year's day, do not have a lot of exact information about the disclosure of speeches.
The most frequent table is for chemistry and schoolchildren, students for conducting laboratory tests, in the course of which it is necessary to get up and talk about singing reactions. According to the table, you can go through, as you will lead yourself a speech in a salty or acidic environment, so that you can start a siege. The siege was carried out before and before we talk about the lack of efficacy of the reaction. This is a suttuvial moment that can be inserted into the path of all laboratory robots.
| Kati- they | anioni | |||||||||
| F - | Cl - | Br - | I - | S 2 | NO 3 - | CO 3 2- | SiO 3 2- | SO 4 2- | PO 4 3- | |
| Na + | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R |
| K + | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R |
| NH 4 + | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R | R |
| Mg 2+ | RK | R | R | R | M | R | H | RK | R | RK |
| Ca 2+ | Nc | R | R | R | M | R | H | RK | M | RK |
| Sr 2+ | Nc | R | R | R | R | R | H | RK | RK | RK |
| Ba 2+ | RK | R | R | R | R | R | H | RK | Nc | RK |
| Sn 2+ | R | R | R | M | RK | R | H | H | R | H |
| Pb 2+ | H | M | M | M | RK | R | H | H | H | H |
| Al 3+ | M | R | R | R | G | R | G | Nc | R | RK |
| Cr 3+ | R | R | R | R | G | R | G | H | R | RK |
| Mn 2+ | R | R | R | R | H | R | H | H | R | H |
| Fe 2+ | M | R | R | R | H | R | H | H | R | H |
| Fe 3+ | R | R | R | - | - | R | G | H | R | RK |
| Co 2+ | M | R | R | R | H | R | H | H | R | H |
| Ni 2+ | M | R | R | R | RK | R | H | H | R | H |
| Cu 2+ | M | R | R | - | H | R | G | H | R | H |
| Zn 2+ | M | R | R | R | RK | R | H | H | R | H |
| Cd 2+ | R | R | R | R | RK | R | H | H | R | H |
| Hg 2+ | R | R | M | Nc | Nc | R | H | H | R | H |
| Hg 2 2+ | R | Nc | Nc | Nc | RK | R | H | H | M | H |
| Ag + | R | Nc | Nc | Nc | Nc | R | H | H | M | H |
Mindset:
R - speech is good to go out in the water; M - slightly soluble; H - practically unrecognizable in water, or easily found in weak abrasive acids; RK - unresponsive to water and only in strong inorganic acids; NK - insoluble nі in water, nі in acids; D - increase hydration when disconnected or not in contact with water. A dash means that such a speech does not seem to be.
In water razchina, salts will increase or partially dissociate on them. Salts of weak acids and (or) weak bases are susceptible to hydrolysis. Water solutions of salts replace hydrated ones, one bet and more folding chemical forms, which include hydrolysis and other products. A number of salts are also found in alcohols, acetone, amide acids and in. Organizational distributors.
From water solutions, salts can crystallize near crystals of crystals, from guides - near crystals of crystals, for example CaBr 2 ЗС 2 Н 5 ОН.
Data about the development processes that occur in water-salt systems, about the breakdown of salts when there is a lack of presence in fallowness due to temperature, pressure and concentration, about the storage of solid and rare phases, there may be some solutions for the increased systemic changes.
Methods for the synthesis of salts.
1. Obtaining average salts:
1) metal with non-metal: 2Na + Cl 2 = 2NaCl
2) metal with acid: Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl 2 + H 2
3) metal with a range of solids active metal Fe + CuSO 4 = FeSO 4 + Cu
4) basic oxide with acidic oxide: MgO + CO 2 = MgCO 3
5) basic oxide with acid CuO + H 2 SO 4 = CuSO 4 + H 2 O
6) under acidic oxide Ba (OH) 2 + CO 2 = BaCO 3 + H 2 O
7) submission with acid: Ca (OH) 2 + 2HCl = CaCl 2 + 2H 2 O
8) salt with acid: MgCO 3 + 2HCl = MgCl 2 + H 2 O + CO 2
BaCl 2 + H 2 SO 4 = BaSO 4 + 2HCl
9) the range from the range of salt: Ba (OH) 2 + Na 2 SO 4 = 2NaOH + BaSO 4
10) solution of two salts 3CaCl 2 + 2Na 3 PO 4 = Ca 3 (PO 4) 2 + 6NaCl
2.Otrimannya sour salts:
1. Interchange of acid with a short delivery. KOH + H 2 SO 4 = KHSO 4 + H 2 O
2. Interpretation of overly acidic oxide
Ca (OH) 2 + 2CO 2 = Ca (HCO 3) 2
3. The interaction of the middle salt with acid Ca 3 (PO 4) 2 + 4H 3 PO 4 = 3Ca (H 2 PO 4) 2
3. Obtaining basic salts:
1. Hydrolysis of salts, fixed with a weak base and strong acid
ZnCl 2 + H 2 O = Cl + HCl
2. Supplementing (by specks) of small amounts of meadows to the range of middle metal salts AlCl 3 + 2NaOH = Cl + 2NaCl
3. Interaction of salts of weak acids with middle salts
2MgCl 2 + 2Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 O = 2 CO 3 + CO 2 + 4NaCl
4.Containment of complex salts:
1. Reactions of salts with ligands: AgCl + 2NH 3 = Cl
FeCl 3 + 6KCN] = K 3 + 3KCl
5.Preparation of sub-base salts:
1. Joint crystallization of two salts:
Cr 2 (SO 4) 3 + K 2 SO 4 + 24H 2 O = 2 + NaCl
4. Oxidative-promising reactions, amalgamated by the powers of a cation or anion. 2KMnO 4 + 16HCl = 2MnCl 2 + 2KCl + 5Cl 2 + 8H 2 O
2.Chemical power of acidic salts:
1. Thermal distribution with the approval of the average salt
Ca (HCO 3) 2 = CaCO 3 + CO 2 + H 2 O
2. Vzaєmodiya in the meadow. Rejection of the middle sol.
Ba (HCO 3) 2 + Ba (OH) 2 = 2BaCO 3 + 2H 2 O
3. Chemical power of basic salts:
1. Thermal distribution. 2 CO 3 = 2CuO + CO 2 + H 2 O
2. Interaction with acid: the illumination of the middle salt.
Sn (OH) Cl + HCl = SnCl 2 + H 2 O
4. Chemical power of complex salts:
1.Ruynuvannya complexes for rakhunok approval of low-pricked spoluk:
2Cl + K 2 S = CuS + 2KCl + 4NH 3
2. Exchange of ligands between external and internal spheres.
K 2 + 6H 2 O = Cl 2 + 2KCl
5.Chemical power of subline salts:
1. Relationship between meadows: KCr (SO 4) 2 + 3KOH = Cr (OH) 3 + 2K 2 SO 4
2. Update: KCr (SO 4) 2 + 2H ° (Zn, dil. H 2 SO 4) = 2CrSO 4 + H 2 SO 4 + K 2 SO 4
Serving sea and ocean water, natural rose salts for industrial removal of a number of salts-chlorides, sulfates, carbonates, borates Na, K, Ca, Mg For a group of minerals that can establish sieges of salts of genera (sulphates and chlorides of Na, K and Mg), I will call it "natural salts". Most genera of high-grade salts are found in Russia (Solikamskoe), Canada and Nimechchin, Pivnichniy Afritsi, Russia and Kazakhstan, NaNO3 - in Chile.
Salt vykoristovuyut in kharchovy, chemistry, metallurgy, sklyanoi, shkіryа, textile industries, in the Silskoy government, medicine, etc.
Main types of salts
1. Boraty (oxoborate), hydroboric acids: metabolic HBO 2, orthoboric H 3 VO 3, and not seen in polyborny. For a number of boron atoms in a molecule, it can be divided into mono-, di, tetra-, hexaborate, etc. Boraty is also called according to the soluble acids and for a few moles of В 2 О 3, which falls on 1 mole of the basic oxide. So, a variety of metabolites can be called monoborates, which can be used to replace anion B (OH) 4 or a chain anion (BO 2) n n - diborami - how to avenge the chain building anion (B 2 O 3 (OH) 2) n 2n- triboratams - how to take revenge on anion (B 3 O 6) 3.
The structures of borates include boron-oxygen groups - "blocks", from 1 to b, and from 1 to 9 atoms in boron, for example:
Coordinate number of boron atoms is 3 (boron oxygen three-component group) or 4 (tetrahedral group). Boron-oxygen ugrupovannya - the basis of not only sharp, but rather large folding structures - chain, sharuvate and frame polymerized. It will remain as a result of the addition of water in the molecules of hydrated Borat and the formation of bridge links through atoms of oxygen; The process is one of the supravodzhutsya by breaking the link B-O all the middle of the polyanions. Polyanion can be used to attach a number of groups - boron oxygen tetrahydrids or triplets, їkh dimer or side anions.
Amonium, puddles, and also other metals in the oxidation stage +1 are most often hydrated and anhydrous metabolites of type MBO 2, tetraborate M 2 B 4 O 7, pentaborate MB 5 O 8, and also decaborate M 4 B 10 O 17 n H 2 O. Puddle-earth and іnshі metals in the oxidation step + 2 give rise to hydrated metabolites, triborates М 2 B 6 O 11 and hexaborate МB 6 O 10. as well as anhydrous meta-, ortho- and tetraborate. For metals in the oxidation stage + 3 characteristic hydrated and anhydrous orthoborates MVO 3.
Boraty - barnless amorphous speech or crystals (mainly with a low-symmetric structure - monoclinic or rhombic). For anhydrous borates, the melting temperature is in the range from 500 to 2000 ° C; the most high-melting metal metaborates and ortho- and metaboratics of the earth metals. A large number of borates during cold melts will easily set up the slope. The hardness of hydrated borates is 2-5 on the Mohs scale, up to 9 for anhydrous borates.
Hydrated monoborates consume crystallization water up to ~ 180 ° С, polyborates at 300-500 ° С; vodi for rakhunok gruppon , coordi nated about boron atoms, rise to ~ 750 ° C. With repeated heat, amorphous substances are formed, which at 500-800 ° C in most cases are aware of "borate overgrouping" 3.
Boraty metals, ammonia and T1 (I) are found in water (especially meta-and pentaborates), hydrolyzed in water (dissolve the reaction). Most borates are easy to decompose with acids, in some cases - with CO2; i SO 2 ;. Borats of low-earth and important metals interrelate with the differences of meadows, carbonates and hydro-carbonates of low-grade metals. Waterless borati is chemically more stiff, less hydrated. With deyakim alcohols, zokrema with glucerin, borats, they will establish a solution at the water complex. In case of strong oxidizing substances, sprinkling of Н 2 О 2, or in case of electrochemical oxidized borate, it is converted into peroxoborate .
There are nearly 100 natural borates, mostly with salts of Na, Mg, Ca, Fe.
Hydrated borates can be washed off: neutralization of H 3 VO 3 with oxides, hydroxides or metal carbonates; exchange reactions of borates in foreign metals, most often Na, and from salts of other metals; reaction of mutually reworking of low-loss borates with water breakdowns of borates of other metals; hydrothermal processes with fermentation of halogenated metals in the strength of mineralizing additives. Anhydrous borates can be scrubbed with an alloy of either B 2 O 3 or oxides or metal carbonates or hydrates; monocrystals twist in the range of borates in melted oxides, for example, Bi 2 O 3.
Boraty vikoristovuyut: for іnshikh spoluk boru; as a component of the charge for the production of skla, glaze, emaly, ceramics; for fireproof and leaky; as a component of fluxes for refining, combining and soldering metal "; in the quality of substances and for making use of lacoparb materials; as a mordant for farming, ingibitoria of corrosion, components of electrolyte,
2.Halogen, chemical and halogens from in. Elements. To halides, make up for half-rings, in which atoms a halogen may have great electronegativeness, lower in. Element. Halogenidiv do not accept Not, Ne and Ar. To simple, or binarny, EX halides n (n- most often, the number of types 1 for monohalogenides up to 7 for IF 7, and ReF 7, or 6 for shot, for example 7/6 for Bi 6 Cl 7) carry, in winter, salts of hydrohalogenic acids and interhalogenated salts (for example, halogenfluoride). There are also changes in nitrate, polyhalogenide, hydrohalogenide, oxohalogenide, oxyhalogenide, hydroxohalogenide, thiohalogenide and complex nitrate. The stage of oxidation of halogens in halides is adapted to the road -1.
For the nature of the element-halogen link, there is a simple halogen and arthritis on the ion and covalent. For the reason, there may be changes in the nature of the redevelopment of the contribution of this kind of warehouse. Halogens of rain and earth metals, as well as a lot of mono- and di-halogens. Metal is a type of salt, in which there is a tinge of the character. Most of them are low-volatile refractory, good water; at the water level, there may be more dissociation on it. The power of salts of volodyut also trihalides of rare earth elements. The dispersion in water of ionic halogens, as a rule, changes from iodides to fluorides. Chloride, bromide and iodide Ag +, Cu +, Hg + and Pb 2+ are rotten at water.
Increasing the number of halogen atoms in metal halides, or reducing the amount of charge to the metal up to the radius of the year, to increase the covalent storage link, reducing the reliability in water and thermal stability of halogen The number of deposits is promoted for halogenated metals of the same period and in the series of halogens of the same metal. Їх it is easy to quilt on the butt of thermal powers. For example, for halogenated metals in the 4th period, the melting and boiling temperatures are approximately 771 and 1430 ° C for KC1, 772 and 1960 ° C for CaCl 2, 967 and 975 ° C for ScCl 3, -24.1 and 136 ° C for TiCl 4. For UF 3 melting temperature ~ 1500 ° С, UF 4 1036 ° C, UF 5 348 ° С, UF 6 64.0 ° С. n if you don't mind n The covalentity of the connection will increase in the transition from fluorides to chlorides and change in the transition from the rest to Bromium and iodide. Thus, for AlF 3, the sublimation temperature is 1280 ° C, A1C1 3 is 180 ° C, the boiling temperature of A1Br is 3 254.8 ° C, and AlI is 3 407 ° C. In the series ZrF 4, ZrCl 4, ZrBr 4, ZrI 4, the sublimation temperature is 906 , 334, 355 і 418 ° С.In the rows of MF n i MS1 n de M-metal is one pidgroup, the covalence of the link changes with the growth of the atomic mass of metal. Fluorides and metal chlorides with approximately the same external and covalent storage link is not large.
The average energy of the element-halogen link changes during the transition from fluorides to iodide and from changes n(Div. Table.).
Bagato metal nitrate, which is to replace the isolated or bridging O atoms (apparently oxo-and oxyhalogenides), for example, vanadium oxotrifluoride VOF 3, dioxyfluoride niobium NbO 2 Fі, dihydroxyhydrogen dioxide
Complex halides (halogenated metals) replace complex anions, in some halogen atoms with ligands, for example, hexachloroplatinate (IV) calium K 2, heptafluorotantalate (V) sodium Na, hexafluoroarsenate (V) lithium Highest thermal stability of fluoro-, oxofluoro- and chlorometallates. For the nature of the links to complex halides, there are close connections with cations NF 4 +, N 2 F 3 +, C1F 2 +, XeF + and ін.
For halogenated species, there is a characteristic association and polymerization in the early and gas phases with the light of the bridge connections. Most powerful to the whole halogenated metals of the I and II groups, AlCl 3, pentafluoride Sb and transition metals, oxofluoride stock MOF 4. In the form of halogenated metals from the viscous metal, for example. Cl-Hg-Hg-Cl.
Fluoride is meaningfully derived from the authorities from in. Halogens. However, in simple halides, the change is less pronounced, lower at the halogens themselves, and in complex halides, it is weaker, lower in simple ones.
Bagato covalent halogens (especially fluoride) are strong Lewis acids, for example. AsF 5, SbF 5, BF 3, A1C1 3. Enter the fluoride before the super acid store. Vishі nіtraty is introduced by metals and water, for example:
5WF 6 + W = 6WF 5
TiCl 4 + 2Mg = Ti + 2MgCl 2
UF 6 + H 2 = UF 4 + 2HF
Group V-VIII metal halides, crim Cr and Mn, H2 is introduced to metals, for example:
WF 6 + DT 2 = W + 6HF
Bagato covalent and ionic metal halogens in conjunction with the establishment of complex halogens, for example:
KC1 + TaCl 5 = K
More light halogens can be more important from halogens. Kisen can oxidize halogens from the species C1 2, Br 2, and I 2. hydrogen halides.
Halogenides can be removed without the need for elements, together with the modification of hydrogen halides or hydrohalic acids with elements, oxides, hydroxides, or salts, as well as exchange reactions.
Halogens are widely used in technical applications for eliminating halogens, rain and earth metals, as a component of glasses and in. Inorganic materials; stench є industrial products from virgin and color metals, U, Si, Ge and others.
In nature, halogens form a class of minerals, in which fluoride is represented (for example, Mineral fluorite, cryolite) and chlorides (sylvin, carnallite). Bromine and iodine enter the storehouse of mines near the isomorphic houses. Significant numbers of halogens can be found near the waters of the seas and oceans, in salt and underground salines. Deyaki halogens, for example NaCl, KC1, CaCl 2, enter the storehouse of living organisms.
3.Carbonate (form Lat. Carbo, genus Padezh carbonis vugilla), salts of vugelic acid. Run middle carbonate with anion CO 3 2- and acid, or hydrocarbonate (obsolete Bicarbonate), with anion HCO 3 -. Carbonati - crystal speech. Most of the middle metal salts in the oxidation stage + 2 crystallize into the Hexagon. reshittsi type of calcite and rhombic type of aragonite.
In the middle carbonates, only salt metals, ammonia and Tl (I) are found in the water. As a result of significant hydrolysis, dissolve a major reaction. Most importantly, carbonate metals in the oxidation step + 2. Navpaks, all hydrocarbons are good at water. When exchanging reactions in water levels with metal salts and Na 2 CO 3, the drop of middle carbonates is set in quiet drops, if the difference is significantly less than that of hydroxides. Tse maє mice for Ca, Sr and їх analogs, lanthanum, Ag (I), Mn (II), Pb (II) and Cd (II). Reshta cation in case of interaction with broken carbonates as a result of hydrolysis can give not the middle, but the main crabonates, or to add hydroxides. Medium crabs, take out a lot of charged cations, and sometimes precipitate from water in the presence of a great excess of CO 2.
The chemical power of carbonates is equivalent to the class of inorganic salts of weak acids. characteristic features carbonates are tied with nasty rosin, and also thermally unstable as crabonates themselves, as well as H 2 CO 3 on precipitated ion of CO 3 2 - from the point of view at VALT 3. When there is an excess of CO 2 on the siege of the middle carbonate, hydrocarbonate is set in the range, for example: CaCO3 + H 2 O + CO 2 = Ca (HCO 3) 2. Presence of hydrocarbonate water will accumulate and time-consuming horror. Hydrocarbonate, when lightly heated, even at low temperatures, is known to transform into middle carbonate, which, when heated, decomposes to oxide and CO 2. More active metal, this is the temperature of decomposition of this carbonate. So, Na 2 CO 3 melts without folding at 857 ° С, and for carbonates Ca, Mg and А1, the folding vise can reach 0.1 MPa at temperatures of 820, 350 and 100 ° С.
Carbonate velmy is widely widened in nature, due to the participation of CO2 and H2O in the processes of mineralization. carbonates play a great role in global equilibria and gas-like СО2 in the atmosphere, reducing СО2;
і ions НСО 3 - і СО 3 2 in hydrosphere and solid salts in lithosphere. Naivazhivіshі minerals - calcite CaCO 3, magnesite MgCO 3, siderite FeCO 3, smithonite ZnCO 3 і deyaki іn. Vapnyak is stored in the main calcite and in calcite skeletal surpluses of organisms, rarely in aragonite. In addition to natural hydrated carbonate metals and Mg (for example, MgCO 3 DT 2 O, Na 2 CO 3 10H 2 O), sub-carbonate [for example, dolomite CaMg (CO 3) 2, throne Na 2 CO 3 NaHCO 3 2H 2 O] and basic [malachite CuCO 3 Cu (OH) 2, hydrocerusite 2PbCO 3 Pb (OH) 2].
Most important calcium carbonate, calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate. Bagato of natural carbonates of velmy zinni metal ores (for example, Carbonates Zn, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cu). Hydrocarbonates play an important physiological role, being buffer words, which regulate blood pH.
4.Nitrate, salts of nitrogenous acid HNO 3.Vidome may be more suitable for all metals; yak yak in viglyadі anhydrous salts M (NO 3) n (n- stages of oxidation to metal M), as well as in crystals of crystals M (NO 3) n x H 2 O ( NS= 1-9). From water breakdowns at temperatures close to the room, only nitrates of iron metals crystallize anhydrous, sieve - near crystals. Physical and chemical authorities anhydrous and hydrated nitrate of one and the same metal can be strongly degraded.
Anhydrous crystals of nitrates of d-elements are made up. Mentally, it can be broken down into an equally covalent type of link (salts of Be, Cr, Zn, Fe and іn. For ionic nitrates, they are characterized by a large temporal strength, a change in crystalline structures of a large symmetry (cubic), and the visibility of splitting of nitrate-ion smogs in the IK spectra. Covalent nitrate may be more highly versatile in organic stores, more low thermal performance, and the spectrum may be more collapsible; Some covalent nitrates are volatile at room temperature, and when disassembled in water, they are often decomposed with the appearance of nitrogen oxides.
All anhydrous nitrates appear to be strong oxidative power, enhancing the presence of ion NO 3 -, at the same time oxidative health of growth during the transition from these to non-covalent nitrates. Remains open in the range of 100-300 ° C, ion - at 400-600 ° C (NaNO 3, KNO 3 and deyaki in. When heated, to melt). Products distributed in solid and hard phases. є lastly nitrites, oxonitrates and oxides, inodi - vilny metals (if the oxide is non-stable, for example Ag 2 O), and in the gas phase - NO, NO 2, O 2 and N 2. Warehouse of products, laid down to deposit in the nature of the metal of that third stage oxidation, heating, temperature, gas storage and in. Umov. NH 4 NO 3 detonates, and with a strong heating it can be spread out with a vibuh, N 2, O 2 і H 2 O are approved; at increased heating, it is laid on N 2 Оі Н2О
Vilny ion NO 3 - in the gas phase of a single-sided tricycle with an N atom in the center, kuti ONO ~ 120 ° and dozhini links N-O 0.121 nm. In crystalline and gas-like nitrates ion NO 3 - in the main, they have their own form and size, which is the origin of space, budova nitrate. Ion NO 3 - can be a mono-, bi-, tridentate or bridging ligand, which is characterized by great versatility of types of crystal structures.
Moving to high steps oxidized through sterich. Difficulty not be able to establish anhydrous nitrate, and they are characterized by oxonitrate, for example UO 2 (NO 3) 2, NbO (NO 3) 3. Nitrate to establish a large number of sub-and complex salts with ion NO 3 - in the inner sphere. In water centers, as a result of the hydrolysis of the cation of the transition metals, the hydroxonitrate (main nitrate) is installed in a changeable warehouse, which can be seen in a solid mill.
Hydrated nitrate occurs as anhydrous thymus, but in crystalline structures and metal in a large number of dressings with water molecules, and not with ion NO 3. It smells more beautiful, less waterless, dissolves more weak oxidizing, incongruently melting in crystallized water in an interval of 25-100 ° C.
Behind the bagatma of his chimіchnіy authorities nіtraty analogіchnі ін. Inorganic salts. The characteristics of the peculiarities of the nitrates are even higher in the water, the low thermal stability and the quality of the oxidation of the organic inorganic spoluks... With the renewal of nitrates, the amount of nitrogenous products NO 2, NO, N 2 O, N 2 or NH 3 is established with the overgrowth of one of them in the form of the leader, temperature, reaction of the middle and in. Factor_v.
Industrial methods for removing nitrates are based on NH 3 clays with HNO 3 (for NH 4 NO 3) or for nitrous gases (NO + NO 2) for clays of meadows or carbonates (for nitrates of ferrous metals, Ca, Mg, Ba), promising exchange reactions of metal salts with HNO 3 or nitrates of foreign metals. In the laboratory for the removal of anhydrous nitrates, the reaction of transient metals can be treated with a combination of N 2 O 4 and organic compounds with organic solutions such as reactions with N 2 O 5.
Nitrate Na, K (natriєva and kalієva selіtri) are seen at the sight of natural loads.
Neutrality stays in the bagatyah galuzyah promislovostі. Amonium nitrite (ammonium nitrate) - mostly nitrogenous, kindly; in the quality of good viciousness, it can also neutralize foreign metals and Ca. Nitrati - components of rocket firing, pyrotechnical warehouses, pickling rods for farbuvanny fabrics; їх vykoristovuyut for painting metals, preservation of food products, yak likarski zasobi and for the collection of metal oxides.
Nitrate toxic. Wicked a lot of legends, cough, blues, heart-and-heart failure and lack of symptoms. The lethal dose of nitrates for humans is 8-15 g, the allowable dose is 5 mg / kg. For sumi nitrates Na, K, Ca, NH3 HDC: in water 45 mg / l ", in soil 130 mg / kg (class 3); in vegetables and fruits (mg / kg) - potatoes 250, cabbage bilokachanna piznya 500, carrots pіznya 250, buryak 1400, tsibulya rіpchasta 80, zucchini 400, dini 90, kavuni, grapes, apples, pears 60. 40-5500 mg / l), groundwater.
5.Nitri, salts of nitric acid HNO 2. Vicorist is to be used in front of nitrites of foreign metals and ammonia, less - of muds of earth and Z d-metal, Pb і Ag. About nnіtrіtah іnіh metalіv є only urivuchastі vіdomostі.
Nitrite metals in the oxidation step +2 create crystals with one, two or more water molecules. Neutrality approve sub-and-use salts, for example. CsNO 2 AgNO 2 or Ba (NO 2) 2 Ni (NO 2) 2 2KNO 2, as well as complex spheres, for example Na 3.
Crystalline structures are available for only anhydrous nitrites. Anion NO 2 can not be configured properly; cut ONO 115 °, with the band H — O 0.115 nm; type link M-NO 2 ionic-covalent.
Good solutions for water nitrite K, Na, Ba, badly - nitrites Ag, Hg, Cu. Depending on the temperature, the differences in nitrites increase. Mayzhe all the nitrites are nasty in alcohols, ethers and low-polarity razchinnik.
Neutrality is thermally small; can be melted without folding only nitrites of other metals, nitrites of other metals can be opened at 25-300 ° C. Mechanism of unfolding nitrites is folding and includes a number of parallel-late reactions. The main gas-like products are distributed - NO, NO 2, N 2 і О 2, solid - metal oxide or element metal. The vision of a great number of gases will accumulate vibuhovoy spreading of nitrites, for example NH 4 NO 2, which folds to N 2 and H 2 O.
The characteristic features of the nitrite are associated with the thermal instability and the build-up of the nitrite-ion, which is oxidizing, as well as being susceptible, fallen from the middle and nature of the reagents. In a neutral center, nitritis evolve to NO, in an acidic medium it oxidizes to nitrates. Kisen and CO2 do not interact with solid nitrites and water solutions. Nitriti take the distribution of nitrogen organic speeches, Zokrema aminiv, amidiv and in. With organic halogens RXH. React according to the statements of both RONO nitrites and RNO 2 nitrospoluk.
The promises of nitrites rejection are based on the absorption of nitrous gas (total NO + NO 2) by differences of Na 2 CO 3 or NaOH with the last crystallization of NaNO 2; nitrites of metals in industry and laboratories to recognize the exchange reaction of metal salts with NaNO 2 or renewed nitrates of metals.
Nutrient stagnation for the synthesis of azobaric substances, in vitro production of caprolactam, as oxidizing agents and leading ones in humotechnical, textile and metal-processing industries, as preserving grub products. Nitriti for Nano 2 and KNO 2, toxic, wicked headballs, blues, cause fatigue, etc. When NaNO 2 is removed, methemoglobin is set in the blood, and the membranes of the erythrocytes are shredded. It is possible to establish nitrosamines with NaNO 2 and aminov without the middle in the intestinal tract.
6. Sulfate, hydrochloric acid salts. For example, the middle sulfate with anion SO 4 2- acid, or hydrosulfate, with anion HSO 4 -, the main thing is to replace the order with the anion SO 4 2- - OH group, for example Zn 2 (OH) 2 SO 4. scho include two new cations. Before them, there are two large groups of sulfates - galloon , and also schenite M 2 E (SO 4) 2 6H 2 O , de M-singly charged cation, E - Mg, Zn and інші double-charged cations. Intrauterine sulfate K 2 SO 4 MgSO 4 2CaSO 4 2H 2 O (mineral polygalite), sub-basic sulfates, for example, mineral groups of alunite and jarose M 2 SO 4 Al 2 (SO 4) 3 4Al (OH 3 and M 2 SO 4 Fe 2 (SO 4) 3 4Fe (OH) 3, de M is a singly charged cation. Sulfate can be included in the store of miniscule salts, for example, 2Na 2 SO 4 Na 2 CO 3 (mineral berkeit), MgSO 4 KCl 3H 2 O (kainite) ...
Sulfate is a crystalline speech, medium and acid in a large variety of good solutions in water. Slightly soluble calcium sulfate, strontium, lead and deyaki in., Practically non-susceptible BaSO 4, RaSO 4. Basic sulfates, as a rule, are slightly soluble or practically non-susceptible, or hydrolyzed by water. Sulfates can be crystallized from water sources in the crystals of crystals. Crystals of important metals are called vitriol; low vitriol CuSO 4 5H 2 O, green vitriol FeSO 4 7H 2 O.
Medium sulfate metals are thermally stable, at that time, when acid sulphate, when heated, decompose, transforming into pyrosulfate: 2KHSO 4 = H 2 O + K 2 S 2 O 7. Medium sulfate in. Metals, as well as basic sulphates, when heated to reach high temperatures, as a rule, open up with the approval of metal oxides and types of SO 3.
Sulfate is widely used in nature. The stench is seen at the sight of minerals, for example, gypsum CaSO 4 H 2 O, mirabilite Na 2 SO 4 10H 2 O, and also enter the warehouse of sea and river water.
Bagato sulphate can be eliminated by the interaction of H 2 SO 4 with metals, oxides and hydroxides, as well as the decomposition of salts of volatile acids with hydrochloric acid.
Inorganic sulfates are widely used. For example, ammonia sulphate-nitrogen good, sodium sulphate vikoristovuyut in flask, paper industry, virobniztvі viscozy and in. Natural sulphate minerals - sirovin of dm industrial waste from `` dnan '' of other metals, future, materials and on.
7.sulfites, hydrochloric acid salts H 2 SO 3 . Development of average sulfate with anion SO 3 2- and acid (hydrosulfite) with anion HSO 3 - . Medium sulfates - crystalline speech. Sulfur ammonia and other metals are good for water; dissolution (g in 100 g): (NH 4) 2 SO 3 40.0 (13 ° C), K 2 SO 3 106.7 (20 ° C). Hydrosulfates are established at water levels. Sulphites of rain-earth and deyakykh in. Metal is practically not found in water; dissolution of MgSO 3 1 g in 100 g (40 ° С). From crystals (NH 4) 2 SO 3 H 2 O, Na 2 SO 3 7H 2 O, K 2 SO 3 2H 2 O, MgSO 3 6H 2 O і ін.
Anhydrous sulfates when heated without access to water in sealed vessels are disproportionate to sulfides and sulfates, when heated in a stream of N 2 they consume SO 2, and when heated in water they easily oxidize to sulfates. Z SO 2 at the water center of the middle sulfate is confirmed by hydrosulfite. Sulphites are relatively strong indications, oxidized in the range of chlorine, bromine, H 2 O 2 and in. Before sulfates. Razkladautsya strong acids (for example, HC1) with the appearance of SO 2.
Crystalline hydrosulfite types for K, Rb, Cs, NH 4 +, smelly stench. Rashta of hydrosulphurization only at the water level. Alcohol content NH 4 HSO 3 2.03 g / cm 3; dissolution in water (g in 100 g): NH 4 HSO 3 71.8 (0 ° C), KHSO 3 49 (20 ° C).
When the crystalline hydrosulfite Na is heated, or, if SO 2 is saturated, the pulp breaks down M 2 SO 3, pyrosulfite (old metabisulfite) M 2 S 2 O 5 - salts of non-hydrochloric acid 2 S 2 O 5 crystals, small; strength (g / cm 3): Na 2 S 2 O 5 1.48, K 2 S 2 O 5 2.34; vishche ~ 160 ° С will develop with SO 2; razchinyayutsya at water (from razkladannyam to HSO 3 -), razchinnist (g in 100 g): Na 2 S 2 O 5 64.4, K 2 S 2 O 5 44.7; confirm the hydrates Na 2 S 2 O 5 7H 2 O і ЗК 2 S 2 O 5 2H 2 O; criminals.
The middle sulphites of the foreign metals are reconstituted by the intermodal water range of M 2 CO 3 (abo MOH) 3 SO 2, and MSO 3 - through the passage of SO 2 through the aqueous suspension of MCO 3; vikoristovuyut in the main SO 2 from gases, which enter contact syrchanoacid virobnitstv. Sulfate stagnates when added, farmed and handled fabrics, fibers, skins for canning grain, green food, feed industrial inputs (NaHSO 3,
Na 2 S 2 O 5). CaSO 3 і Ca (НSO 3) 2 - disinfectants in wine and sugar industry. NaНSO 3, MgSO 3, NH 4 НSO 3 - components of a sulfite meadow in case of cellulose brewing; (NH 4) 2 SO 3 - clay SO 2; NaHSO 3 is the amount of H 2 S from gases, which comes in virobnits, the forerunner in virobnits of sirchist barvniks. K 2 S 2 O 5 - a component of acidic liquids in photography, antioxidant, antiseptic.
Method of distribution of sums
Filtration, subdivision of heterogeneous systems like - solid particles (suspension) and gas - solid particles behind the addition of porous filtering partitions (FP), which let pass some gas, or pick up solid particles. Rushіjna power to the process - the growth of vice on offense to the side of the FP.
If there is a suspension of solid particles, start a siege on the FP, which, if necessary, rinse with water if necessary. Ridinoyu, as well as znevodnyuit, blowing through a new wind any gas. Filtruvannya vyroblyayut in case of persistent growth vise, for post-production process w(To-ty filtrate in m 3, to pass through 1 m2 of FP surface in one hour). In case of continuous growth of the vice, the suspension is supplied to the filter before the vacuum, or an over-pressure vice, as well as by a piston pump; when the speed of the centralized pump increases, the pressure increases, and the process decreases.
Falsely, from the concentration of suspensions, there are several types of filtration. At a concentration of more than 1%, filtration is caused by the establishment of a siege, and at a concentration of less than 0.1%, it is caused by clogging of the FP (illumination of ridin). If the FP does not pretend to end up with a ball of siege, and in the filtrate they drink solid particles, filter out finely dispersed auxiliary materials (diatomite, pearlite), which are suspended in front of the FP until they are applied to the FP. With a cobbled concentration less than 10%, there are more pods and thickened suspensions.
Development of a filter of uninterrupted and periodic performance. For the rest, the main stage of robots is filtration, defense of the siege, of the war and of the defeat. At the same time, optimization is stuck behind the criteria for maximum productivity and those who use vitrates. If the energy is not vibrating, but the hydraulic support of the partition can be used, then the greatest productivity is attainable, if the hour of filtering is one triviality of additional operations.
You can easily store the nibbling FP from extra, internal, synthetic and thin fabrics, as well as non-woven FP from natural and synthetic fibers and non-bulky - ceramic, metal-ceramic and polypropylene. Straight to the ruch of a filtrate and a lot of force, they can be opposed, or are mutually perpendicular.
Structural filters for business development. One of the best ones is to wrap a drum vacuum filter (Div. fig.) without interruption, in any direct way to filtration and action or heavy resistance. Section rozpodilny annex z'єnu zoni I and II with a gap to vacuum і zones III and IV - with a gutter of compressed chew. The filtrate and the prominence of the ridina from the zones I and II should be in the vicinity of the well. Having built up a wider range of automation also for filter presses with horizontal chambers, filter tissue at the endless lines and elastic membranes for the siege of the press. On the new visitor is the operation of the suspension of the chambers, filtration, the production and the hot siege, the rise of the suspension chambers and the visible siege.