Main fabrics. Budova roslinnoy fabric

roslinna klitina

Roslinna fabrics are stored from parenchymal and prosenchymal cells (Fig. 1). Parenchymal cells may have a rounded shape or a large-faceted shape, size from 10 to 60 microns. In bulbs and juicy fruits, parenchymal cells can be up to 1 mm in permeth.

Small. 1. Roslinnі klіtini:

a, b - parenchyma ( 1- nucleus s nucleus; 2- cytoplasm; 3 - vacuole;

4- clitinna stinka); v - prosenchimnykh

For prozenchimnykh cells, the shape is characteristic. Growth in the transverse repetition is approximately the same as in parenchymal cells, and in the case of parenchymal cells.

The tissue of fruits and vegetables is mainly from parenchymal cells.

A cell of mature fruits has developed into a thin elastic shell, a protoplast and a vacuole. The cytoplasm, the nucleus and the inclusion - plastids, starchy grains, roslinna oils, crystals of deyaky salts enter the protoplast warehouse.

The clinker shell is stored from crystalline particles-microcells-and can be seen with a glimpse of cross-flow. The shell of juvenile cells is even thinner and made with cellulose. With the further development of the cellini, the shell grows in size, in which protopectin, hemicellulosis, and also some cutin, suberin or linii accumulate. Inappropriateness in the water of speech, how to make a shell, to make it, and from the same time, it’s nice mechanics.

The cytoplasm is a glimpse of the draglist masu, as in the young clit, everything will be remembered from the shell space.

In the adult cells, the cytoplasm is located in a thin ball, which is just right before the shell, as well as plasma strands (threads), which cross the cell in different strands.

Cytoplasm avenge 60-90% of water. The largest part (65%) of the other rivers are stocked with bottles, carbohydrates (up to 12%), fatty lipoids (up to 12%), amino acids (1.5%). In addition, the cytoplasm contains cyclic non-contamination alcohol cholesterol-C 27 H 45 OH, fatty phosphatid lecithin, organic salts, phosphoric acid. Most of the protoplasm can avenge phosphorus.

The cytoplasm is granular and divided into three balls: plasmolemma, mesoplasm and tonoplast. Plasmolemma (membrane) is a ball of cytoplasm that lies down to the membrane of the cytoplasm. Mesoplasm is the main central sphere of cytoplasm. Tonoplast-inner ball of cytoplasm, between vacuoles.

klinne core Growth in the cytoplasm of the clitin and is less important for their reproduction and development. Zokrema, pripuskayut, with the nucleus tied with the approval of enzymes.

Behind the chemical warehouse, the nucleus is similar to the cytoplasm, but it is less formed by a great amount of nucleoproteins, as well as organically linked hallux.

Plastida can be subdivided into chloroplast, chromoplast and leukoplast.

Chloroplasts play an important role in the processes of photosynthesis, when a new solution is introduced organic speeches in roslin. At the center of the chloroplast there is a vacuole, but starch is de-synthesized.

Chromoplastics substitute carotene and then boiled in orange color. The stench is a plate, a head or a grain of the wrong form.

Leukoplasty - barvnі plastid and kulyastoї or dovgastoi form. Smells to avenge itself with a head rank in bulbs, roots or roslin, concentrating on cellin kernels. Three leukoplasts in some species of sirovini (cartoplast) become starchy. In the process of ripening, there is a possible transition of some types of plastids to others.

Tiny grains are deposited in plastids and may be crystalline buds. The shape of the grains lies in the form of roslin and budov and plastids.

Aleyronov grain-reserve bіlkovі speech. The shape of the grains is round, the size is small. Particularly rich in aleurone grains are deposited in plants of legumes, devilishly grow in starchy grains.

Roslinn_ oils serve as a spare energy material and are included in the main rank in the network of roslin.

Calcium oxalate can be deposited in rose linen fabric at the viglyadi crystals of the growth form. Once the purchase of grown crystals is accepted, so friends are called.

Vacuoles are empty, spaces of which are surrounded by a ball of protoplasms. In an unrepentant cell, vacuoles are visible. In the world of maturity, there is a great number of other vacuoles in the cells, which sometimes get angry.

Vacuoles are filled with clitine juice, which is a water-based solution of industrial organic speech: candies, proteins, acids and salts, tanning fluids, glucosides, hydrophilic vitamins. In mature syruvin with rosvinenny klitin klіtinny juice revenge more, nіzh in unattainable.

A ball of protoplasm of a living cell, but between the shell, has power to penetrate. Wine passes the water, ale will overwhelm a large part of the connections near the water, the change in concentration in the rooms and in the small space. At the connection of the cytoplasm in the clitine juice of the speech, an osmotic pressure is applied to the cytoplasm, the value of which value starts from the level

de r - vice, Pa;

C - molar concentration of the range, mol / m 3;

R-gas became, equal to 8.3 J / (mol · K);

T-absolute temperature, K.

The osmotic grip in cells of mature fruits and vegetables begins to grow from 0.49 to 0.98 MPa. The protoplasm is crushed to the shell of the cell, which is stretched out on all sides. I will call the tse of stresses the cellin’s camp “Turgor” (Fig. 13, a).

Turgor can be destroyed by creating a small space with concentrated zucru rosters. kitchen salt... With a molar concentration, a higher concentration, a lower concentration of client juice, which drains away the client's growth in volodya and great osmotic potential. Part of the vologue is to move from cells to small space, and protoplasm to clutch. I will call this phenomenon plasmolysis (Fig. 2, b).

If you put down a series of concentrated solutions, for example, if they were vitiated with water, then turgor can be seen. This phenomenon is called de clasmolysis. The stage of turnover lies in the form, concentration and triviality of the development of speech.

Small. 2. Turgor (A)і plasmolysis (B) roslinnaya klitini

Non-gated worms of protoplasms wick to heat, before the bricks start to burn. For the coagulation of cytoplasm, the cytoplasm of the fruit tissue must reach 50-60 ° C. The cytoplasm of the human body, in order to reduce the number of vitamins, is heated up to 70-80 ° C.

See roslinnaya fabric

Okremі klіtini roselinnoї fabrics mіtsno z'єднані between themselves middle plates, which are stored in the main protopectin. At the same time, the plates store the parenchymal tissue cyst with cell membranes. The keratin shells are penetrated by thin cytoplasmic filaments, which are called plasmodesmata. The stench of taking in between the protoplasts of the two suspended cells.

Promyshki mіzh clіtins approve mіzhklіtinnі go. In qih moves, food accumulates, as well as carbon dioxide ( carbon dioxide gas). The number of gases can reach a significant value (up to 30% vol.).

Razr_znyayut such types of roslinnoy fabrics:

The primary meristem is the tissue of the growing organs of roslin (stems, roots). Vaughn is stored from the non-accusations of parenchymal cells, which are completely filled with cytoplasm. The primary meristem is not to take revenge on gases and not at least a few steps.

The main tissue is parenchyma, which is stored with the development of parenchymal cells, where vacuoles are formed, filled with juice, plastid until included. Mіzhklіtinnі space and walk in the fabric and clearly bend. From the tsієї fabrics, mature fruits are stored, as well as leaves.

Covering tissue, or epidermis, is a skin of fruits, which is set in the surface ball of the primordial meristem. On the roots, stalks, and in some and on the fruits, a crooked ball to avenge the cells, leaked by suberin. Tissue from such cells can be brown-colored and I will call it peridermy.

Mechanical fabrics-fabrics, which give a touch to the organs of the roselin. You will be stored in a warehouse, which can be used to store the shells. Mechanical tissue on the basis of living prozenchimny clitins with shells, which are lured on the vernacular stinks, or in the clutches of clitins, it is called Kolenhima. Mechanical fabrics, approved by the deadly prozenchimny clitins, I will call them sclerens.

Providn_ fabrics-fabrics, which are stored from prosenchimnyh clitin significant dozhini. The stench is very important in the stems.



Vityag z robots

BUDOVA ROSLINNOЇ KLITINI

Roslynna klitina stock up from big-mensh zhorstkoi clerical shellі protoplast. Klitinna obolonka - tse clitinna stinkaі cytoplasmic membrane. Termin protoplast to be like a word protoplasm, like the last hour of vicorism has fallen for the meaning of all living things. Protoplast - the whole protoplasm of individual cells.

Protoplast to be stored in cytoplasmі kernels. The cytoplasm contains organelles (ribosomes, microtubules, plastids, mitochondria) and membrane systems (endoplasmic reticulum, diktosomes). Cytoplasm to avenge the cytoplasmic matrix ( main speech) In both the buried organelles and membrane systems. From the cell line, the cytoplasm is from the site plasma membrane, Yaka is an elementary membrane. At the top of the list tvarin klitin roslinnі klіtini revenge one abo vacuoles... The price of a bulb, zapovnіyu іdinoy and іtochenі with an elementary membrane ( sinkerastom).

In the living Russian clientele, the main speech is in post-rus... At the rukh, called by the cytoplasm struma abo cyclosis, organelles are drawn in. Cyclosis lodges oversupply in cells and exchanges them between cells and navkolishn_m middle.

Plasma membrane. It is a bilayer phospholipid structure. For growing cells of the power of invagination of the plasma membrane.

Plasma membrane of viconuє advanced functions:

Take part in the exchange of speech between the clergy and the navkolishnim middle;

Coordination of synthesis and folding of cellulose microfibrils of the cell line;

Transmission of hormonal and call signals, which control growth and differentiation of blood cells.

Core. The most important structure in the cytoplasm of the eukarotic cell. The core of the vicon has two important functions:

Control over the life of the clientele, visas, such as bills, and at any time they are guilty of synthesizing;

Sbering genetic information and transferring it to daughters during the process of client's affairs.

The nucleus of the eukarotic cell is refined with two elementary membranes, coreswoo aboutaboutlochka. Vona is penetrated by numerical pores with a diameter of 30 to 100 nm, visible only through an electronic microscope. Pori to create a folding structure. The name of the membrane of the nuclear envelope in some mice is united with the endoplasmic reticulum. The core can be viewed as a special, locally differentiated part of the EPR (EP).

The kernels made by special barvniki can loose thin threads and breasts. chromatinі nucleoplasm(The core speech is basic). Chromatin is stored in DNA tied with special cells - histones. In the process of cell development, chromatin is more and more limited and climbed into chromosomes. DNA is encoded with genetic information.

Organisms are derived from a number of chromosomes in somatic cells. For example, cabbage MAє - 20 chromosomes; sleepyhead - 34; wheat - 42; Lyudin - 46, and one of the species of ferns Ophioglossum - 1250. Statements of cells (gametes) only half of the number of chromosomes characteristic of somatic cells to the body. The number of chromosomes in gametes is called haploid(Single), in somatic cells - diplomatic(Submit). Clitini, who may have more than two sets of chromosomes, are called polyploidnі.

With a light microscope, spherical structures can be seen - nuclear... The skin nucleus has one or more nuclei, which are poured in the non-dividing nuclei. Nuclei synthesize Ailments. Allocate in the nuclei of diploid organisms є two nuclei, one for the cutaneous haploid set of chromosomes. The nucleus does not tarnish the vascular membrane. Biochemically, the nucleus is characterized by a high concentration of RNA, which is tied here with phosphoproteine. Razmіr yaderets lay down from the functional camp of the cell. It is also noted that in a fast growing cell, in the course of intensive processes of synthesis of a bottle, the nucleus grows in size. The nuclei produce іRNA and ribosomes, so that the synthetic function is displayed only in the nucleus.

Nucleoplasm (karyoplasma) is represented by a homogeneous family, in the form of a variety of proteins, including enzymes.

Plastida. Vacuoles, cellulosic cells plastidi- the characteristic components of the growing cells. Skin plastid is a liquid membrane, which is stored in two elementary membranes. The middle plastids develop the membrane system and the stage is homogeneous. stroma. Grown plastids are clasified at the moment they take place in them.

chloroplast, in some cases, photosynthesis, revenge chlorophyll and carotene. Name the shape of a disc with a diameter of 4 - 5 microns. In one cell of mesophyll (middle of the leaf) there can be 40 - 50 chloroplasts; in mm 2 leaves - close to 500,000. in the cytoplasm of the chloroplast, the cytoplasm grows in parallel to the cytoplasm of the chloroplast.

The internal structure of the chloroplast is foldable. The stroma is permeated with a rozvineno system of membranes, showing the shape of pukhirts - thylakoids. Kozhen Tylakoid is composed of two membranes. Thylakoidi set up one system. As a rule, the stench is picked in piles - facets, Scho make a fortune of coins. Tylakoid okremich granny tied between thylakoid stroma, or intergranular thylakoid. Chlorophylls and carotenoids are incorporated into the membranes. Chloroplasts of green dews and algae often replace grains with starch and other fatty droplets. Tiny grains are the hours of food for photosynthesis. The stench can be seen from the chloroplasts of the dewline, which is in the temperate for 24 hours, and it will appear again after 3 - 4 years if the dewline is transferred to the light.

Chloroplasts are like autonomous organelles and bacteria. For example, ribosomes and bacteria and chloroplasts may be very similar. Smell less than ribosomes eukaryot. The synthesis of the protein on the ribosomes of bacteria and chloroplasts is driven by chloramphenicol, so as not to spoil the infusion in the cells of the eukars. In addition, both bacteria and chloroplasts may be similar to the type of nucleoid, organized by a similar rank. Unimportant to those who develop chloroplasts and synthesis are found in them pigments in the meaning of the world are controlled by the chromosomal DNA of the clytin, while the chloroplast's DNA is not formed.

Chloroplasts can be used with the main cellular organelles, as the stench is the first in the transformation of sleepy energy, as a result of which people will be eliminated, both in the house and in the bedroom. Chloroplasts do not only have photosynthesis. The stench takes on a role in the synthesis of amino acids and fatty acids, and serves as a treasure for the hour's supply of starch.

chromoplastics - pigment plastids. Riznomanitni due to the shape of the stench does not smell chlorophyll, but synthesizes and accumulates carotenoids, such as natayut zhovtu, pomaranchevu, red chervonnya votkam, old leaves, fruits and roots. Chromoplasts can develop from chloroplasts, as they consume chlorophyll and internal membrane structures, accumulate carotenoids. It should not be seen when the fruit is ripe. Chromoplastics add to the comas of those little creatures, and the smell of the smell was immediately evolved.

leukoplast - non-pigmented plastid. They synthesize starch from them ( amiloplasts), Інші zdatnі until the adoption of new speeches, including those who are lіpіdіv and bіlkіv. On light, leukoplast is transformed into chloroplast.

proplastid - Other non-barren or bloody green undifferentiated plastids, which are found in the meristematic (distribution) cells of roots and pagones. Smells are interspersed with the most differentiated plastids - chloroplasts, chromoplasts and aminoplasts. As the development of protoplasts is trapped through the visibility of the light, one can appear in them either prolammellar babies, Which represent napivkristalichnyh purchases of tubular membranes. Plastida, which revenge prolamellar tiltsya, is called etioplastic. On the light etioplast, it transforms into the chloroplast, while the membrane of prolamellar cells forms the thylakoid. Ethioplasticity is established in the leaves of the roses, which are found in temryavi. protoplasts of the germ from the place of being transformed into the etioplast, from which chloroplast develops on the light. For plastids, it is characteristic that they transition easily from one type to another. Plastida, like bacteria, multiply underneath the two. In meristematic cells, the hour of protoplasticity is approximately one hour of the duration of the cell. However, in mature cells there is a large portion of plastids to establish itself as a result of a subset of mature plastids.

Mitochondria. Yak and chloroplasts, mitochondria are otochened with two elementary membranes. The inner membrane allows you to create a fold-free krist, which significantly increases the inner surface of the mitochondria. The stench is significantly less, less plastid, can be close to 0.5 microns in diameter and versatile in terms of its shape.

In mitochondria, there is a process of change, as a result of which organic molecules are split into energy and transfer to ATP molecules, the main energy reserve of all eukarotic cells. Most of the growing clays have hundreds and thousands of mitochondria. Їх number in one client is the beginning of the client's need for ATF. Mitochondria are found in post-modern Russia, moving from one part of the cell to the one, getting angry one by one. Mitochondria get involved in there, de-needed energy. As the plasma membrane actively transfers speech from cell to cell, then the mitochondria grows out of the membrane surface. From the crumbling one-line algae of the mitochondria, they buy up more of them, supplying the energy that is necessary for their ruins.

Mitochondria, like і plastids, є as autonomous organelles, where they can be replaced with components necessary for the synthesis of volatile proteins. The inner membrane drains a thin matrix, which contains proteins, RNA, DNA, ribosomes, and other bacterial and developmental forms of speech. DNA is found in the eyes of cyclone molecules, rosted in one or more nucleoids.

On the basis of the similarity of bacteria with mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaritas, it is possible to allow for mitochondria and chloroplasts to resemble bacteria, as they knew the "influx" in larger heterotrophic cells - prednatural eukars.

Mikrotiltsya. On the basis of plastids and mitochondria, which are separated by two membranes, mikrotiltsya are spherical organelles, otocheni one membrane. Mikrotyltsya may be more granular (grainy) instead, sometimes they are developed and crystalline white included. Mikrotiltsya knitted with one or two EPR dalyans.

Deyakі mіkrotіltsya, called proxies, Play an important role in the metabolism of glycolic acid, which can be used without pre-treatment. The stench of green leaves is tied with mitochondria and chloroplasts. Інші mіkrotiltsya, invitations, Glyoxisoma, Revenge the enzymes needed to convert fat into carbohydrates. Tse vіdbuvaєtsya in bagatokh nasіnnі before the hour of sprouting.

vacuole - not intertwined with a membrane for cellini, clitinny juice. stink tonoplast(Vacuolar membrane).

A young roslinna clitine takes revenge on the numerous other vacuoles, as in the world of old clitins get angry in one big. In adult patients, vacuole can occupy up to 90% of it. With a cytoplasm, the cytoplasm is squeezed in a thin peripheral ball to the clitinous obolonts. The increase in the size of the cells is mainly considered for the growth of vacuoles. The result is a turgor grip and springiness of the fabric. The polyagus has one of the main functions of the vacuole and tonoplast.

The main component of the juice is water, which is varied in fallowness as a type of growth and physiological stan. Vacuoles take revenge on salt, sugar, and more. Tonoplast plays an active role in transport and accumulation in vacuoles of children. Concentration of ions in the juice can be meaningfully change the concentration in the middle of the day. With a high vmіstі of deyakie speeches, crystals are set in the vacuoles. Crystals of calcium oxalate are most often used to change their shape.

Vacuum is a missed accumulation of products in the exchange of words (metabolism). There can be buty drinks, acids and spuns for people of speech (alkaloids). Pigments are often added. Black, violet, purple, dark-chervonia, yaskravo-chervoniy produce pigments from the anthocyan group to the growing cells. At the sight of these pigments, the stench is good at the water and in the wine juice. Smell you need to start a chervon and a blakytne boiled bagatyokh vegetables (radishes, turnips, cabbage), fruits (grapes, plums, cherries), kvitiv (hairs, geraniums, dolphiniums, trojandi, pivonii). Some of the pigments are masked in chlorophyll leaves, for example, in the ornamental red maple. antotsiani bar ossinє leaf in yaskravo-chervoniy kolіr. The stench is accepted in the cold, sleepy weather, if the chlorophyll synthesis creeps into the leaves. In the leaves, if anthocyanin is not established, when chlorophyll is ruined, sweep away the orange-orange carotene and chloroplasts. Naybilsh yaskravo podparbovany leaves of the cold clear sun.

Vacuoles take part in the destruction of macromolecules, in the circulation of the components in the cells. Ribosomes, mitochondria, plastids, panting in vacuoles, ruining. It is possible to adjust the activity of the lysosomes- organelles tvarin klin.

Vacuoles are established from endoplasmic hedgehogs (reticulum)

Ribosomi. Small particles (17 - 23nm), which are stored approximately from a small amount of bottles and RNA. In the ribosomes, amino acids are found in the statements of the biches. Їх more in the clitines with an active exchange of speech. Ribosomal growth in the cytoplasm of the cell can be readily or adhered to endoplasmic reticulum (80S). Їх appear in the nucleus (80S), mitochondria (70S), plastids (70S).

Ribosomes can establish a complex, on which one-hour synthesis of the same polypeptides is seen, information about which one is known about one molecule and RNA. Such a complex is called polіrіbosomі (polysome). Klіtini, yakі synthesize bіlki in great numbers, May a large system of polysom, which is often attached to the outer surface of the shell of the nucleus.

Endoplasmic reticulum. It is a folding trivial membrane system of unassigned length. In the development of the EP, there are two elementary membranes with a vigorous open space between them. The form and the additional EP is based on the type of cellini, the metabolic activity and the stage of differentiation. In the cells, which are secret or store bottles, EP can have the shape of flat mice, or tanks, with numerical ribosomes tied from the yogo ring surface. Such a reticulum is called short endoplasmic reticulum. Smooth E R slither into a cylindrical shape. A short and smooth endoplasmic reticulum can be present in one and the same cell. As a rule, there is a rich numerical sound between them.

Endoplasmic reticulum is functional as a communal system of cellini. Wien of dressings callous shell kernels. In fact, two structures form one membrane system. If a nuclear shell is ready for an hour, it’s time for the clitine to be ripped, її to make up fragments of the EP. Endoplasmic reticulum is a system for transporting fluids: bilk, lipid, carbohydrate, in the separate part of the cell. endoplasmic reticulum susceptible clitin to admit through cytoplasmic strands - plasmodesmi - as they pass through the cells of the shell.

Endoplasmic reticulum is mainly responsible for the synthesis of cell membranes. In some Russian cells, membranes of vacuoles and microbials, cisterns are established here dictyosome.

Apparat Golgi. Tsey term vikoristovuyutsya for the meaning of all dictyosome, abo Tilets Golji, in cells. Diktosomes are groups of flat, disc-shaped bulbs, or tanks, which are rounded along the edges into a folding system of tubes. dіktіosomi y vishykh roslin stored in 4 - 8 tanks, taken at once.

Razvyayut in the pachts_ of tanks razryznyayut form and ripen on the side. the membranes are formed of the cisterns according to the structure of the EP membranes, and the membranes of the cisterns - the plasma membrane.

Diktosomes take a part in the secretion, and in most of the growing roslin - in the established clitine shells. The polysaccharides of the cinnamon shell, synthesized by dictosomes, accumulate in the bulbs, which sometimes come from the ripening tanks. Tsi secretory pukhirtsi play and get angry with the CPM; When polysaccharides take a place in them, they wake up into a thin shell. Deyaky words, which accumulate in dictiosome, are established in their structures, for example, in the EPR, and then transported in diktosome, de vidozmeyutsya (modified) before the secretion. For example, glycoprotein is an important awakening material of a clitinous shell. Bilkova part is synthesized by the polysome of the short EPR, in carbohydrates - in dictosome, de-offended parts can be united, approved of glucose.

Membranes are dynamic, crumbling structures, which gradually change their shape and area. The concept is based on the rupture of the membranes endoplasmic systems. As a matter of principle, the inner membranes of the cytoplasm, the membrane of the mitochondria and plastids, are one single purpose and take the ear from the EPR. The new cisterns of dictyosomes are established with the EPR through the stage of intermediate bulbs, and the secretory puffs, which appear as dictyosomes, in the end bag are formed by the plasma membrane. In such a rank, endoplasmic reticulum and dictosomes establish a functional whole, in which dictiosomes play the role of intermediate structures in the process of membrane rearrangement, other endoplasmic reticulum, in the membrane, some plasmatic. In tissues, cells, which grow weakly and spread, gradually develop new membrane components.

microtubules found practically in all clientele. They are cylindrical structures with a diameter of about 24 nm. Dovzhina їх varіyuє. The dermal tube is stored in a sub-unit of the tubulin. Sub-units fit 13 late threads to savor the central emptying. Microtubules are a chain of dynamic structures, the stench is regularly ruined and established at the singing stages of the cell cycle. They are seen in special missions, which are called centers of microtubule organizing. In tall plants, the stink may have a slightly curving amorphous structure.

Function of microtubules: to take part in the established cell membrane; direct the bulbs with dictyosomes to form obolonts, similar to spindle threads, which are set in a dividing cell; play a singular role in the form of a cult plate (the first cordon between daughters). In addition, microtubules are an important component of jigutik and viyok, in Russian, they play an important role.

microfilamenti, similar to microtubules, known practically in all cells. They are two threads with a thickness of 5 - 7 nm, which are stored from a fast-feeling bottle of actin. Bunches of microfilaments are formed in bagatokh clitines of vine growing. Mabut, play an important role in cytoplasmic currents. Microtubules at once with microtubules make the nun cytoskeleton.

Basic speech To finish it, they were respected with a homogeneous (one-sided) large gap with a small number of structures, or even structureless. However, in Danish hour, a high-voltage electronic microscope, the bulo was installed, but the main speech was a trivial grati, prompted from thin (3 - 6 nm in diameter) strands to fill the entire cell. The second components of the cytoplasm, including microtubules and microfilments, are brought up to microtrabecular peshetki.

The microtrabecular structure is a gravity from the white strands, the space between them is filled with water. At the same time with the water, the grate makes the consistency of the gel, the gel makes the dramatic bodies.

To the microtrabecular lattice attached to the organelle. Lattice of communication between the surrounding parts of the cell and the direction of internal transport.

lіpіdnі dots- the structure of the spherical form, which can be used to inflate the granularity of the cytoplasm of the growing cell under the light microscope. On electronic micrographs, the stinks look amorphous. Even more similar, more dots are seen in plastids.

Lypid dots, taken for organelles, called them spherosomes and respected, how the stench was chilled out with a single or double spherical membrane. However, the rest of the data show that the dots of the membranes are dumb, the ale stench can be covered with white.

Ergastic speeches - the chain of "passive products" of the protoplast: spare speeches or come in. The stench may appear and become familiar in the development period during the clinical cycle. Krym grains of starch, crystals, anthocyanin pigments and lithium dots. Resins, gums, tannins and white words are brought before them. Ergastic speech enters to the storage of the cell membrane, the main speech of the cytoplasm and organelles, including vacuoles.

Dzhgutiki and vіyki - thin, hair-like structures that come out of the surface of the baguette. It may have a constant diameter, and the aloe may vary from 2 to 150 microns. Mentally, some of them are called jgutics, and more short and few are called vii. There are no clear clues about two types of structures, so for the definition of both the vicious terms jgutik.

In the case of algae and mushrooms, jigutik є locomotive organs, for the help of which stench is sucked by the water. In roslin (for example, moss, liverworts, ferns, deyaky golonasinnykh) only statéví klitini (gameti) may have jgutics.

Kozhen jgutik can be organized. Zovnishnє a circle of 9 pairs of microtubules will drain two additional microtubules, rostasovani in the center of the jgut. Revenge the enzyme "handles" come from the same microtubules of the skin from the last couples. The main scheme of organizing 9 + 2 is found in all the jugs of eukaryotic organisms. Vvazhayut, how the ruch of the jiguties is mounted on the microtubules, with the whole call of the bet, the microtubules collapse one vdovzh without the speed. The formation of pairs of microtubules is probably one of one wiklik, locally, there is a jgutic.

Jigs "virostayut" from cytoplasmic cylindrical structures, called basal tiltsy, to form the basal part of the jgut. Basal tilt internal budov For the sake of the jgutin budov, for the blame of the fact that the ringing tubes are taken into the trikes, and not in the bet, but the central tubes are out.

Klіtinna stinka. The clinker is in the interdependent size of the protoplast and is taken out of the hole by the water and the vacuole.

The classroom has very specific functions, which are important not only for the clients and fabrics, but for the clients to be found, but also for the whole Russian line. Klіtinnі stіnki grayut my role in piling, transport and vision of speech, and, moreover, they can contain lysosomal, or digesting activity.

Components of the culture. The most typical component of the classroom є cellulose, yaka in the meaning of the world is architecture. cellulose molecules are stored from repeated glucose molecules, from one end to end. Dovgі thin cellulose molecules are combined in microfibrils thickness 10 - 25 nm. Microfibre twists and twists thin threads, as one can wrap one near the top of oneself, like a rope in a rope. Such a leather "rope", or macrofibrilli, mattress is close to 0.5 microns, reaching up to 4 microns. Macrofibrilli mitsnі, yak rіvna for the size of steel drіt.

The cellulose skeleton of the cell line of the storage is intertwined with it by cellulose molecules into the matrix. Polysaccharides, called hemiceluloses,і pectin speech, abo pectini, chemically even close to hemicelluloses.

The main component of the culture is lignin -є the most widely spread cellulose polymer of growing clitins. Lіgnіn zbіlshu the rigidity of the wall and wince to take revenge in the clitines, so that you can see the basic or mechanical function.

Cutin, suberin, wax- zvychay v_dkladajutsya in the shells of zhisnyh fabrics of roslin. Kutin, for example, takes revenge in the clitine shells of the epiderma, and suberin - the secondary fabric of the cork. Offensive speeches are created in a combination of wax and prevent overwhelming water and growth.

Balls of the classic style. The community of the wall of growing cells is varied in wide fringes in fallow areas as the role of cells in the structure of the growing plants and the wine of itself. Under the electronic microscope, you can see two balls in the Russian culture: middle plate(Also called by the interlocutors by speech), primordial culture. Bagato klіtini put one more ball - second classroom. The middle plate grows between the primary walls of the suspension cells. Secondary wall, which won, is deposited by protoplast cells on the inner surface of the primary cells.

The middle plate. The middle plate is stored in the main part of the pectin rivers. There, it is the fault of the clinics that are guilty, and sometimes they are known to become clitines, where the gossip from the canaliculi of the endoplasmic hedge and the cisterns of the Golgi apparatus (dictyos) is meant. Then in a whole lot there are bulbs, filled with pectin speech (with polysaccharides). Bulbashki come from tanks to the Golgi apparatus. Early clinical stage is to take revenge on polysaccharides, the main ones from pectin and hemicellulose. In the second place, the warehouse includes a large number of words - cellulose and lignin.

Pervinnaya klіtinn obolonka. A whole ball of cellulose shell, which can be deposited to the cob or for an hour grows up. Krym cellulose, hemicellulosis and pectin of the primordial membrane to replace the glucoprotein. The primary shells can be detected. The pectin component is very plastic, as it allows the primordial obolontsi, to stretch along the world of the root, stem or leaf.

Actively proliferate cells (a large number of mature cells, obtained in the process of photosynthesis, energy and secretion) may be the primary shells. Such cells from the primordial shell and living protoplast have a characteristic shape, dividing and differentiating into a new type of cells. The stench itself takes a part in the wounds and tissue regeneration of the roslin.

The first classy shells are not the same in trade for all their prototypes, but they may be thin, which are called the first equal fields. Heavy cytoplasms, or plasmodesmata, to conserve the protoplasts of the suspension cells, let them pass through the primary pores of the field.

Secondary clitinna shell. Uninvolved on those who are richly roslinny clitini mayut only the first shell, in the case of those to the center of the cell, the protoplast adds the second shell. Name the price to increase the growth of the cell and the area of ​​the primary shell does not increase. For the reason, the second shell appears to be the first one. Secondary shells are especially required for special cells, for changing the roslin and conducting water. For the insertion of the secondary shell of protoplast cychcintin, which, as a rule, is removed. Secondary shells have more cellulose, lower in primary ones, and pectin and glucose in them are visible. The second shell is stretched out with pracea, and the matrix is ​​stored with hemi-cellulose.

In the second shell, three balls can be seen - call, middle and internal (S 1, S 2, S 3). Sharuvat, the structure of the secondary shells is significant. Microfibrized cellulosis in the second layer is shown to be more pronounced, but not in the first one. Lignin is an extraordinary component of the secondary shells of a tree.

Pori in the shells to contact each other one to one. Two lie one against one pori and the pore membrane is a couple of pir. In cells that may have secondary shells, there are two main types of pyr: simple and bloated. At the lined pores, the secondary shell hangs over empty pori. Simple pores are dumb.

Growth of the clitinnoy shell. In the world of growth of the clitine, the area and the area of ​​the clitine shell are growing. The stretching of the casing is a folding process. Win is controlled by protoplast and regulated by hormone auxin.

In cells, which grow in all straight lines, the appearance of myofibrils is of a vague nature. Tsі mіofіbriili make up the wrong hemline. Such cells are found in the core of the stem, which can store tissue during the cultivation of cells in vitro. At podovzhuyutsya cells of myofibril or bichy shells are laid down in a straight cut to the axis of the podovzhennya.

Specs to the matrix - pectin, hemicellulosis and glucoproteins are transferred to the shell in the bulbs of dictyosomes. With a large amount of pectin, it is more characteristic for growing cells, and hemi-cellulose is re-fermented in non-growing cells.

Cellulose microfibrils are synthesized on the surface of cells behind an additional enzyme complex tied with a membrane. The arrangement of microfibrils is controlled by microtubules, which are expanded at the inner surface of the plasma membrane.

Plasmodesmi. Thin filaments of cytoplasm, which tie together protoplasts in the susceptible cells. Plasmodesmi or pass through the cell membrane in any mission, or on the primary pore fields, or in the membranes, in pairs of pyr. With an electronic microscope plasmodesmi, they see the channels of the plasma, the plasma membrane. Along the axis of the channel, a cylindrical tube of small size is pulled into the center of the channel from one cell - desmotubule, to grow up with the endoplasmic reticulum of both sumy clitins. Bagato plasmodesmi are formed before the hour of the clerical base, if the endoplasmic reticulum tubular parts start to develop in clerical payment. Plasmodesmi can be established in the shells of non-dividing cells. The structure will provide for an effective transfer of deyakie speeches from klitini to klitini.

Rozpodil klin. Have complex organisms podіl kіtin order zіbіlshennyam їkh smіrіv є in the way of growing all organism. New clientele, which was set up for an hour of the day, was given the structure and functions, both from the father's cell, and also from themselves. The process can be divided into two different stages: mіtozі cytokinesis.

mitosis- the set of two daughter nuclei from one nucleus, morphologically and genetically equivalent to one to one. cytokinesis - the cytoplasm of a part of the cell was added to the approval of the daughter cells.

Klіtinniy cycle. Klitina is alive go through a series of last days to form a cell cycle. The triviality of the cycle itself varies depending on the type of cellini zovnishnikh officials, For example, depending on the temperature, or for the safety of lively talk. Call the cycle to last for interphaseі chotiri fazi mitose.

Interphase. Period between the last metotic podil.

The interphase lasts for three periods, which are designated as G 1, S, G 2.

At the period G 1, which can be repaired with mitosis. The number of cytoplasms, including small organelles, is increased in the whole period. In addition, according to the current hypothesis, during the G 1 period, speeches are synthesized, which either stimulate, or adjust the period S and the cycle, and thus start the process of delays.

At period S, next to period G 1, at the end of an hour, a subset of the genetic material (DNA) is displayed.

At the period G 2, which follows S, structures are formed, which can be taken without the middle in mitosis, for example, the components of the spindle.

Deyakі kіtiny pass neobmezheniye a number of kіtinnіkh cycles. A number of single-cell organisms and processes of cells of active growth zones (meristems). Deyak_specializovan_ clitiniy for maturing in the process of dwelling before breeding. The third group of clinics, for example, to fix wound tissue (callus), secures the health of only in special minds.

mitosis, abo rosodil kernels. Tse uninterrupted process, growing on chotiri phase: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. As a result of mitosis, the genetic material, introduced into the interphase, spreads intermittently between the two daughter nuclei.

One of the most early signs of the passage of the cell to the bottom is to serve as a vuzky, ring-like pass from a microtubule without a middle before the plasma membrane. The centralized girdle will drain the nucleus into the equatorial area of ​​the maybutny mitotic spindle. This is how I show myself before Profazi, I call you pre-phase pasque. Winning a mitotic spindle, back to the appearance of a cell plate in the dying telophase, as it grows from the center to the periphery and gets angry with a shell of a mother’s cell in an area that was previously occupied with a pre-phase pasque.

Prophase. On the cob of prophase chromosomes, twist the threads, spread out the middle of the nucleus. Then, in the world of that thread, it’s possible to thread it, it’s possible to thread it, but the skin chromosome folds not from one, but from two intertwined threads, called chromatids. At the beginning of the prophase, two shortened pairs of chromatids of the skin chromosome and lie parallel to the hand, centromere. It can be better placed on the skin chromosome and to divide the chromosome into two arms of the pinkie.

Microtubules grow in parallel to the surface of the nucleus and the axis of the spindle. This is the earliest manifestation of the collection of the mitotic spindle.

Until the end of the prophase, the nucleus step by step consumes the read outlines and nareshty znika. The nuclear envelope falls off without a hitch.

Metaphase. On the cob metaphase spindle, as it is a trivial structure, it is the most wide in the middle and sounds to the poles, take a short time, take a core. The threads of the spindle are bundles of microtubules. After an hour of metaphase of the chromosome, it folds into two skin chromatids, it grows so that its centromeres lie in the equatorial area of ​​the spindle. With its centromere, the skin chromosome is attached to the spindle threads. However, the threads pass from one pole to the other, not attachment to the chromosomes.

If all chromosomes grow in the equatorial area, the metaphase ends. Chromosomes are ready to go.

Anaphase. Chromatid and cutaneous chromosomes diverge. Now tse daughter chromosomes. First for everything, the centromere lasts, and the two daughter chromosomes and zhooplyuyutsya to the opposite poles. With a large centromere, it collapses in front, and the shoulders of the chromosomes stretch behind. The threads of the spindle, attached to the chromosomes, are short-circuited, with a loss of chromatids and the number of daughter chromosomes in the opposite side.

Telophase. At the telophase, the separation of two identical groups of chromosomes ends, with a nuclear membrane forming near the cutaneous ones. At the same time, the fate of the shrubby reticulum is active. Spindle Apparatus. In the course of the telophase, chromosomes consume the clarity of the outlines, twist, re-transform the knowledge into thin threads. The core is being updated. If chromosomes become invisible, mitosis ends. Two daughter cores enter the interphase. The stench is genetically equivalent to one to one mother's nucleus. This is even more important, because the program is genetic, and at the same time all the signs of guilt were transferred to the daughter's organisms.

The triviality of mitosis is varied in different organisms I won’t lay down according to the type of fabric. However, prophase is naydovsha, and anaphase is nikorotsha. At the roots of the root the triviality of the prophase becomes 1 - 2 years; metaphazi - 5-15 min; anaphazi - 2 - 10 min; telophase - 10 - 30 min. The triviality of interphase becomes from 12 to 30 years.

In bagatokh cells of the center of the organization of microtubules, which are related to the formation of a mitotic spindle, knitted with tsentriplets.

Cytokinesis. The process of the growth of cytoplasm. A large number of organisms in the cell have a long way to draw in the skin of the cell and to see the furrows of the growth, as they step by step get lost, the threads of the mitotic spindle have become cluttered. In all the roslin (moss-like and damnable) and in the little waterweeds, there are plants of cultivation classic plates.

In the early telophase between two daughter nuclei, a barrel-shaped system of fibers is formed, called phragmoplast. Fibers of the phragmoplast, such as fibers of the mitotic spindle, fold into a microtubule. In the equatorial area of ​​the phragmoplast, there are other drops. The stench of getting angry, framing a cliché plate, as it grows up to quiet pir, while the clitine lasts before the shells. At the end of the day, there were two daughters. Dribbles get angry - the bulbs get angry, they are brought up to the Golgi apparatus. In the main stench there is a pectin speech, the middle plate is formed and formed. The membranes of the bulb take part in the induction of the plasma membrane along the sides of the plate. At the same hour, the fragments of the tubular EPR become plasmodesmi.

Writing the middle plate of the skin, the protoplast is deposited on its primary shell. In addition, the skin daughter of the clina is a new ball of the shell near the entire protoplast, as I feed the shell, as well as the shell of the clina plate. The wicked shell of the Batkiv clitin rush into the world of growing daughter clitins.

Rіznі types of mitosis eukarіot

Described vishche podіl kіtin roslin, tvarin tezh, is not the only form of indirect podіlu kіtin. The most simple type of mitosis is pleuromytosis. Vin nagaduє binarne rozpodil prokaryotic clitin In some nucleotides, the replication is lost by being tied with a membrane. The membrane begins to grow between the dots of DNA linking and by itself to carry the chromosomes in the cells of the cellini. The idea of ​​\ u200b \ u200bwith the establishment of a cell constriction of the skin from DNA molecules to appear in a new environment of cells.

Typical for pod_lu eukarotivє the setting of the spindle, prompted by the microtubule. at closed pleuromytosis(Let's take the name of the fact that the separation of chromosomes is seen without the destruction of the nuclear envelope) as the center of the organization of microtubules (CMT) take the part not of the centriole, but of the structure of the membrane, which is found on the inner sides of the nuclear membrane. This is so called polarity of unassigned morphology, from which microtubules enter. Tsikh Tilets two. The stench is dispersed one in one, not absorbing the sound of the nuclear envelope. As a result, two semi-spindles are established, linked with chromosomes. The whole process of establishing the mitotic spindle and the separation of chromosomes in a whole fall is seen from the nuclear envelope. This type of mitosis occurs in the middle of the simplest, widespread in fungi (chitridia, zygomyceti, other, oomyceti, Askomitseti, Miksomyceti and in.). form like closed pleuromytosis If the nuclear shell collapses at the poles of the molded spindle.

By the offensive form of mitosis є orthomytosis. In general, the MTCT grows in the cytoplasm, from the cob itself it is not a half-spindle, but a bipolar spindle. Three forms orthomytosis ( extravagant mitosis), napivzritiyі zakritiy... In case of an almost closed orthomytosis, a bisimmetric spindle is established behind the additional growth in the cytoplasm of the CMT, the nuclear envelope is secured by a stretch of mitosis, behind a vignette of the polar zones. Yak TSOMT can be used as a mass of granular material or to create centrioles. This form of mitosis is found in zoospores of greens, buria, and red algae, in deyaky lower fungi and gregarin. With closed orthomytosis, the nuclear shell will increase, while the spindle is given. Microtubules are formed in the karyoplasm, before growing out of the internal COMT, not tied (in the form of pleuromytosis) with the nuclear envelope. This type of mitosis is characteristic for the subtype of micronuclei in infusoria, but it can also develop in the simplest. With an acute orthomytosis, the nuclear envelope will fall apart more and more. The whole type of podilu cells is characteristic for organisms, which are the most simple and for the cells of growing roslin. The qia form of mitosis is represented by astral and anastral types.

From a shortly viewed material, it is clear that there is a particular head mitosis in the back of the structure. the spindle is podil, how to establish itself at the call with the enthusiasts for their budovoy TSOMT.

Morphology of mitotic figurine

Mitotic apparatus especially good turns at the stage of metaphase mitosis. At the metaphase in the equatorial area of ​​the cell, chromosomes grow out, such as in other strands to stretch so called spindle threads, converge at two poles of the mitotic figurine. In such a rank, the mitotic spindle is the sequence of chromosomes, poles and fibers. Fibers of the spindle are single microtubules or bundles. To fix the microtubules from the poles of the spindle, and part of them to be straightened to Centromere , De roztashovany before і netochori chromosomes (kinetochorny microtubules), partly pass far right to the opposite pole, however, do not reach it. The stench is called "interpolar microtubules". From the poles a group of radial microtubules enters, setting up a structure around them, so that “change syayvo” - the central astral microtubules.

For morphology, mitotic figuria are divided into astral and anastral type.

The astral type of the spindle, or convergent, is characterized by the time that the pole is represented by a small zone, before which microtubules converge (converge). Call at the poles of the astral spindles to spread the centrosome, so that the centrosome will be replaced. However, there are symptoms of centriolarless astral mitoses (with meiosis of spineless ones). In addition, it is implied that they diverge from the poles, radial microtubules, but not to enter the spindle store, or even set up the zonal zones - cytasters. This type of mitotic podil nagaduє dumbbell. The anastral type of mitotic figuri is not at the poles of cytasters. The polar regions here are wide spindles, they are called polar caps, centrioles are included in the warehouse. The spindle filaments do not enter into the entire fall from one point, but spread out in a wide front (diverge) from all zones of the polar caps. The whole type of spindle is characteristic for the clitine, as it spreads in the growing roslin, and is less likely to be developed in the growing creatures. In early embryogenesis of the oocyte during the growth of oocyte maturation and in the case of I and II growth of the oocyte, centerless (divergent) mitosis is observed. Already in the third clerical rise and in all advancing clerks, they follow the participation of astral spindles, at the poles of which the center appears. In general, for all forms of mitosis, the chromosomes from the kinetophores, polar tiltsya (centrosome) and the fibers of the spindle become obscured by the extraal structures.

Centromeri і kinetochor

Centromeres can be localized according to the amount of chromosomes. Holocentric the centromerius occurs in this case, if the microtubules are tied according to all the chromosomes (deyaki komakhi, nematody, deyaki roslini). Monocentric centromeri - if microtubules are linked to chromosomes in the same dialect. monocentric centromeres can be used dotted(For example, at the doers, they brute against others), if only one microtubule goes to the kinetochore, and zonal, Before the folding kinetochore pass the bundle of microtubules. Unimportant on the versatility of centromere zones, all the stench is tied with a folding structure kinetochora In principle, there is a similarity between budov and functions in all economies. Kinetochor is a special protein structure, which has been expanded in the zones of chromosome centromeres. Price of folding complexes, which are stored from bagatokh bilkiv. morphologically, the stench is even more similar, it may be the same as Budov, repaired from diatom algae, ending with people. They are trisharov structures: the inner ball, which is connected to the chromosome, the middle fluffy ball and the last ball. From the inviting ball to enter without the help of fibrils, setting the so-called fibrous crown of the kinetochore. In the zagalny form, the kinetochore may have a view of the plates or disks, which lie in the zone of the primary constriction of the chromosome, in the centromere. On the cutaneous chromosome, or chromatid, one kinetochore is brought in one at a time. Before anaphase, the kinetochores on the skin sister chromatids grow out, ringing the skin with its own bundle of microtubules. In roslin kinetochor, there are no plates, but pivspheres. The functional role of kinetochor polyagus in the connection between sister chromatids, in the enclosed mitotic microtubules, in the regulation of chromosomes and in the power of chromosomes for the hour of mitosis due to the participation of microtubules. Zagalom bilkovy structures, kinetochore underwent in the S-period, parallel to the subunit of chromosomes. Ale їkh bіlki are present on chromosomes in all periods of the clytin cycle.

FABRICS ROSLIN

Osvitnі fabrics (meristemi)

Osvіtnі fabrics in tіlі roslin roztasvayut in іnіtіvіy fіts, that іkh go on the steps of the group (Fig 0; 1) .

1. Verkhivkovi (apikalny) meristemi roztashovuyutsya on tops, or apexes, axial organs - stems, roots. Behind the help of the cich meristems of the vegetative organisms of the growths, they grow up into a full meal.

2. lateral meristem characteristic for axial organs. There the stink of rostashovuyutsya concentrically, at the viglyadі mufti.

3. intercalary, abo insert, meristemi resemble the upper meristems. Tse groups of children, who have not yet multiplied, however, have become on the way of differentiation. The Іnіtsialnykh klіtin in the middle of them are dumb, a little more special.

4. early meristemi You will not be able to update any part of the house. Regeneration starts from dedifferentiation, so that rapid development from specialty cells to meristematic ones. The stench is transformed into phellogen, what will I say plug, The yaka is wrapped around the surface of the wound. Dedifferentiated cells, dilyachis, can form a puff of parenchymal tissue - callus. Most of the singing minds pretend to be organisms of roselin.

crooked fabrics

Smell vikonuyut the role of the cordon bar'єru, from the bottom of the lying fabrics from dovkilla... The first line of growth is stored only from live cells. Secondary and tertiary pokrivi - mostly from the dead with the same clinker walls.

The main functions of curtain fabrics:

· Zakhist roslini vid visihannya;

· Zakhist from the consumption of high-quality microorganisms;

· Zachist from sleepyachnykh opikiv;

· Zakhist from mechanic poshkodzhen;

· Regulation of the exchange of speech between the growth and the navkolishn_m middle;

· Get ​​rid of it.

pervinna on the fabric - epidermis, epidermis . Store from living cells. To pretend to be apical meristems. Covering young, growing stems and leaves.

The epiderma was formed at the roslin in connection with the exit from the water center of living on land with the help of the connection from the visihannya. Krym food, all the clientele of the epidermis are deliberately made up of themselves. Names of the main clientele of the company. The entire surface is covered with a ball of Kutin and tall waxes. Tsey ball to be called cuticle(Shkirka). Vona vіdsutnya on growing roots and sub-water parts of roslin. When dry, the penetration of the cuticle will significantly weaken.

Krim main cells, In epіdermіsі є і інші, zokrema hairs, abo trichomes... The stench is one-liner and one-liner (Fig. 2) . Functionally, the stench to increase the surface of the epidermis, for example, in the zone of root growth, serve as a mechanical stool, chill for support, change the water. A row of roslin mayut zalozіhairs, Naprilad, kropiva.

Tilki from vishchih roslin in epidermis є creeps, Yaki regulate the exchange of water and gas. If there are no cuticles, then every day there is a need for food. Ustyachka - tse group kіtin, scho approve ustychnymi apparatus, how to store in two quieter clitin and clitin epidermi snuggled up to them - sidekicks... The smell comes from the main epidermal cells (Fig. 3 ). To freeze the clientele by being quiet, to feel their clientele in the form and presence of a great number of mitochondria and nervously aggravated stinks. Those, as there are one against one, both of them (Fig. 4) ... Mіzh pretend to be clamorous clientele stomatal gap, Yaka Vede in per-unit space, called podstichnoy empty. Freeze the cells and cause photosynthetic activity. They have a great number of spare starch and numerous mitochondria.

The number of stomata, type of stomatal apparatus, is widely varied in the growing dews. Prodikhs at the current moss-like ones. Their photosynthesis is gametophytic generation, and sporophyte is not developed to independent development.

Zazvychay prodikhi roztashovuyutsya on the lower boat arkush. In the dews floating on the water surface - on the upper surface. In a leaf of cereals, the food often grows out of the way along the sides. Such sheets are displayed on a regular basis. For 1 mm 2 of the surface, it can grow from 100 to 700 holes.

Secondary crooked tissue (periderm). Tsya fabrics to come to the change of epiderma, if the greens of the color of the same pagones change brown. Vona bagatosharova and store in the central bowl of cambial cells - phellogen. Clitini phellogena, for example, call the ball fellemi, but in the middle - phellodermie (Fig. 5).

Basic fabrics (parenchyma) store a large part of all organs of the roslin. The stench of smelling the prominence between the provincial and mechanical fabrics and the presence of all vegetative and generative organs. The fabrics are set up for the differentiation of apical meristems and are stored from living parenchymatous cells, who are distinguished by their functions. Developing asimilar, storing, airy and water-bearing parenchyma.

V assimilation, abo chlorophyll-bearing, photosynthesis parenchyma.

The parenchyma is represented by living parenchymal thin cells, in the protoplasts in the presence of chloroplasts. There are three types of asymmetric fabrics: columnar, spongy and folding. All the stinks take revenge, as a rule, in leaflets.

Stovpchasta, abo palisadna, is the main photosynthetic tissue in roselin. Clitini are cylindrical in shape, they are closed and expanded in the leaves perpendicular to the upper epiderma. Call the stench to make one ball, before two or three. hundred parts of the clitini revenge a great number of chloroplasts, and twisted form the flow of products into photosynthesis.

Lipchasta, or fluff, fabric It is also located in the leaves, zazvychay pid columnar. There is a lot of revenge on the intercellulars, just to tell the name. Klitini have a rounded or spatula shape. There are less chloroplasts in them, less in cells columnar fabric... The important functions of the spinal chlorenchia, the order of photosynthesis, are gas exchange and transpiration.

fold parenchyma to develop in the main in needles and leaves of cereals. The shell of the cytoplasm fixes in the middle of the fold, which enlarges the surface of the shell, and hence the cytoplasm adjacent to the wall, to avenge the chloroplasts. In some folds are set only on the stage, furrowed to the surface of the organ (bamboo, anemone).

Usmoktuvalny, scho glaze. Water and lively speech, necessary for one's own living, grows from the middle of the village. The water growth and water growths soak up all over the surface of their body. In the willows, you can live on land, є for a special specialization, you can glaze, or vmoktuvalny, fabrics, like called absorption... Before them, they see the Rizoids and curl the water of the hairs of moss, the hair-bearing ball of the root, specially curl the water of the hairs in the dermis of the dews, which grow in the hot and dry climates, I curl the tissues of the tree roots, and also the type of shield.

In moss from the root, the stench is poured into the water in the main behind the additional rhizoids, which represent the virginity of the shkirka, which is seen from the wall of the wall. Often Rizoids are stacked with one thin-walled cell from a rounded top. If the top sticks to the substrate, then I’ll make the mistake of getting rid of it. Sphagnous moss revenge special glaze water hіalіnovі kіtini... On the stalks, the stench is made to curl up with decal balls, and in the leaves it grows out with vigorous chlorophyll-bearing cells. Hialynovi clitini are great, dead, their stinks may be spiritual inspiration and other openings, as soon as they are called. Through the opening with a capillary path, the water flows into the gialinovy ​​cells, which are left behind. The tsim itself is explained by the great volity of moss: the stench dulls a bit of water, in many cases it has changed its masu.

A hairy ball є with a curved tissue of the root in the zone of wetness of the point of growth. Vin carry the name rhizoderma, or epіblemi. Klіtini tsiogo sharu make a virginity - root hairs... The stench is alive, with thin cellulosic membranes, an adjacent ball of cytoplasm and great central vacuole... The nucleus will begin to grow in the cytoplasm, which is located in the hair, and then it penetrates the vacuole.

In some of the roslin, the skin clitine of the rhizoderm has hairs, in those of them there are two types of hair in them. three regions, Scho fix the hairs, i atricho-region, Їх do not blush. And in the roots roslin hairs are formed differently.

Before clay velamen- the curvature of the fabric on the wrinkled roots of the roslin-epiphytins, which are vicious in the strength of the support of the storm and the wood. Root cich roslin perebuyut not in the ground, but in the twilight. Velamen is stored from decilcoh spheres of dead parenchymal cells, shells of which may be spinal, or even partly inspirational. In obolontsi there are some open openings, water (boards, dew) penetrates through the holes in the Velam with a capillary path

storing parenchyma perevazhaє in stems, roots, roots. In the kitchens of fabrics, there is a store of speech: drinks, fats, carbohydrates.

Roslini add to the stock a great number of organic words. The accumulation and collection of living words is found in the storage fabrics. Clinics of tissue are thin and thin, but they are shorter than those that are close to each other. Їх shells may be simple rounded pores. Inodi store cells are even larger, especially in juicy fruits. You can bachiti with an irrepressible eye, for example, on an apple or a kavuna.

The stock of lively speeches can be found in cells in protoplasts, in vacuoles, and more in cells in obolonts. In protoplasts - cytoplasm, plastids, spherosomes - speeches can be deposited in solid (starch, granules), raw (oil) and broken mill. So, in the cytoplasm, there is accumulation of beads in the eyes of crystals and of aleuron grains (seeds of leaven, soya, peas, ricini), drops of oil (seeds of olive dews, fruit of olives), in plastids - of crumbs of broths in kartoplі), before bіlki і oils, in spherosomes - oils. In vacuoles, tsukri (root crop of succulent beets, pulp of juicy fruits), pink polysaccharides, for example, ynulin (root and bulbi of topinambur, zhorzhini, tsikoriyu, kulbaby) are found in vacuoles. In the clitinny obolonts, the reserve speech is represented by hemi-celluloses, which can grow in the grass during germination (lupine, palms).

In single-grown roselin, they store fabrics in the main in fruit. The stench is stained with germination and germination of the seedling to the green and the transition to photosynthesis. In bagatorial roselin, spare speech is not only deposited in the fruit, but in the vegetative organs - bark, tree and heart of the stem, in the bark and root of the tree. It is necessary to talk about the growth of the growth with the release of the brunoks of the canopy, the growing young pagones and the roots. In addition, the bagatokh roslin є specialize to store organisms - root, bulbi, tsibulin.

airborne parenchyma, abo aerenhima, to be stored from living cells and great empty spaces (intercellular spaces), which are reservoirs for a stock of gas-like rivers. The emptying of the cells with the main parenchyma (chlorophyll-bearing or storing). Arenhima is kindly rosvinena in water dews in small organs and can be seen in terrestrial species. The most important sign of aerenchim is the participation in gas exchange, as well as the safety of the floating roslin (Fig. 2.15).

Before stocking up also water-bearing parenchyma. The stench is stored in cells with great vacuoles, like revenge watery clitinniy sik, In which there is often a slime in the presence, as it glides and dampens the water. Water-bearing cells provide water in the world of need for other fabrics, in the first place of the meristem and chlorenhim. When water is drawn in earlier, the shells of the aquiferous cells will speed up, making folds on the radial walls. If the fabrics are familiar with water, the radial walls of the cells will straighten, the turgor will be renewed. Water-bearing tissue is characteristic of succulents - roslin with juicy, water-rich vegetative organs (scarlet, agave, young, euphorbia, sedum, cactus). Great aquifers grow in the leaves of some cereals, richly store in the scales of cybulin, up to the aquifers, it is possible to bring gialinovi cells of sphagnum moss