Reaching molecular biology. advancing biology
Modern biology to be grounded on quiet ups and downs, like boules of zroblen in the whole science in the other half
XIX century: beginning of the Evolutionary ceremony by Ch. Darwin,
the founders of K. Bernard's robots in the field of physiology
gui, navazhivіshі doslіdzhennya L. Pasteur, R. Koch i
І.І. Mechnikov in the field of microbiology and immunology,
robots I.M. Sechenov і І.І. Pavlova in the area of vis
shay nervousness i, nareshty, smart robots
G. Mendel
XX century, albeit a well-known author.
XX century has come to the continuation not less than intensive
I will progress in biology. In 1900, the Dutch pupil-biologist H. de Fries (1848-1935), the Nimetsian scientist-botanist K.E. Correns (1864-1933) and the Austrian veterinarian E. Chermak-Zeysenegg (1871-1962) right away one from one or more suddenly suddenly, suddenly, suddenly, suddenly, suddenly, suddenly, the bullets began to emerge, and they became overwhelmed by the laws of recession, established by Mendel.
The development of the genetics of the game was developed. Buv accepts the principle of discreteness in the manifestations of decline
nost, as seen by Mendel; until the vivchennya of the laws of the establishment by the platforms of the authorities and the sign of the fathers of the bully is significantly expanded. Bulo was accepted by the understanding "gene", introduced by the Danish biologist Wilhelm Ioganson (1857-1927) in 1909, which means a unit of decay material, indicative of the transmission of singing signs in decay.
The established understanding of the chromosomes yak the structural nucleus of the cellin, to avenge deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - is highly molecular with a half-molecule, nosy decongestant signs.
Subsequent recent reports have shown that the gene is part of the DNA and the way it is carried only by the soothing powers that be, at that time, like DNA, is the bearing of all the decaying information to the body.
The development of genetics was taken from the great world of prehistoric American biologist, one of the founders of the world of science, Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945). Win having formulated the chromosomal theory of decay. Most of the growing and healthy organisms are diploid, so that the cells (for the sake of state) may have a set of paired chromosomes, the same type of chromosomes from the animal and human organisms. The chromosomal theory of the decay rate was more visible in the decay in the decay sign.
an important message In the development of genetics, it was the appearance of mutations - there is a rapid change to the decline system of organisms, and this can lead to a strong change in the power of the hybrids, which is transmitted and far from the decline. We will call our findings of mutations of goiters, or we will call them natural or spontaneous mutations in the development of organisms, or we will often call these mutations. All kinds of living organisms (like the growing ones, as well as the creatures) are built mutuvati, that is, E. Davati mutations. It’s a phenomenon - a rapid denunciation of new people, which is transmitted during the recession of power - seemingly in biology for a long time. However, the systematic vivification of mutations bulo rospochato Dutch vcheny Hugo de Friz,
the term "mutations" itself. It has been revealed that induced mutations can be caused by radioactive optimization of organisms, as well as can be viciously infused with some kind of chemistry.
Slid to mean the persuasion of all that is tied with mutations. Radianskiy Vchenyi-microbiologist Georgiy Adamovich Nadson (1867-1940) together with his colleagues and scholars, in 1925, established a rush of radioactive prominence on the decline in mushroom livability. Vidomy American geneticist Herman Joseph Möller (1890-1967), who prototyped in 1933-1937 years in the USSR, emerged in 1927 in the past with fruit flies more mutagenic due to X-ray exchanges. Nadal bulo was established, but not only x-ray, but be-as-a-ionized optimization of the wiklikє mutation.
The reach of genetics (and biology as a whole) over the past year has gone into the light of Darwin's book "Walking Visions" the hour is so great, it would be wonderful, since all the price did not fit into the Darwinian theory of Evolution. Two factors: minlity and slackness, yakim Darwin, having given great significance, rendered more glamorous.
Otzhe, who submitted the development of biology and enter it warehouse part genetics, in the first place, even more perfected the Darwinian theory of the evolution of the living light and, in a different way, gave more glimpse of the Moreover, it is possible to say that the successes of biology have hung science in the ranks of the leaders of natural science, moreover, the most hostile ones are connected with the development of processes, which are observed on the molecular basis.
molecular biology
Progress in the field of macromolecules production to the other half of our capital physical methods analysis, the speed of its growth has grown up.
U. Astberi introduces into science the term "molecular biology" and provin basic pre-development biology and DNA. I want to dominate in the 40s,
In 1944, O. Zviri, K. McLeod and M. McCarthy showed that the genetic function in the vicon's cells is not DNA, but not blocks. The establishment of the genetic role of nucleic acids is of little importance for the further development of molecular biology, and it has been shown that the role is not only DNA, but RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Deciphering of the DNA molecule was done in 1953 by F. Crick (England) and D. Watson (USA). Watson and Cry went into the distance to produduvat model of the DNA molecule, nagadu sub-spiral.
The order of nucleic acid implantation and the process of synthesis of a protein in molecular biology is of great importance for the very ear of a small amount of the structure and power of the protein itself. In parallel with the deciphering of the amino acid warehouse of the bricks, an additional spacious structure was carried out. mid who have found Whole directly followed the name of the theory of spiral, broken up in 1951 by E. Pauling and R. Cori. According to the theory, the polypeptide lancet is not flat, but burnt into a spiral, the characteristics of which are also significant.
Unimportant to the youth of molecular biology, the successes reached by it in the whole region, they are great. For a reasonably short term, the nature of the gene was established and the basic principle of its organization, production and function. On the other hand, the genetic code was deciphered; The primary structure of the transport RNAs is more important. Established the basic principle of organizing small subclinical particles, bagatech viruses, and guiding paths to their biogenesis in cells.
The most straightforward molecular genetics is the pre-development of mutations in genes. lucky rіven Knowledge permits not only intelligence and delicate processes, but rather victorious things in their own purposes. Methods of genetic engineering are being developed, which allow genetic information to be brought into the cell of the bazhan. The 70-th rocky developed methods of seeing DNA fragments in a pure view behind an additional electrophoresis.
In 1981, the process of seeing the generations and removing them from the new lantsyugs of the automation systems was started. Genna іngеnerіya in іnannі with microelectronics to see the power to control a living mother mayzhe as it is, as inanimate.
We will stay for an hour in the context of mass information to actively discuss until the end of the cloning and connection with the whole moral, legal and religious problems. As early as 1943, the Science magazine revisited the successful completion of egg production in the “test”. Dalії podії developed by the offensive rank.
1973 Rik - Professor L. Shetles from Columbia University in New York, stating that he was ready to bring the first "baby from the test tubes" to the meeting, for whom the categorical fences went to the Vatican and the Presbyterian Church of the United States.
1978 rock - folk in England Louise Brown, the first child "from the test tube".
1997 Rіk - 27 fierce "Nature" having placed on its obkladintsi - on the microphotography of eggs - the famous sheep Dolly, who was born in the Roslin Institute in Edinburz.
1997 rik - in the very beginning of the breast the magazine "Science"
having seen about the people of six sheep,
the same method. Three of them, including Dolly the sheep,
carried the human gene "factor IX", or
Livan bilka, who is necessary for people, who suffers
on hemophilia, tobto non-coagulability of blood.
1998 rik - chikazky physicist Sidi naked about
bath laboratories on cloning people: vin stverdzhu,
there will not be any other kind of clientele.
1998 rik, cob birch - French vcheny voiced about the folk cloned heifer.
All of the above are unique perspectives for people.
The cloning of organs and tissues is the number one department in the field of transplantology, traumatology and in other areas of medicine and biology. When transplanted to a cloned organ, there is no need to think about the suppression of the reaction may inheritance in viglyadi cancer, which has developed on the background of immunodeficiency. Cloning organizations will become a place for people who have been drunk in the car
emergencies, for some kind of disaster, for people who need radical additional help through the sickness of a kidnapped person (heartbreak, sickness, etc.).
Naybіlsh nauchny effect clonuvannya - to give the power to childless people to the mothers of their powerful children. Millions of family couples in all the world are suffering, being acclaimed to be lost without pity.
Ticket 1 1. Biology is a science, її achievement, connection with інshi sciences. The method of vivchennya living objects. The role of biology in the life and practical activity of people. 2. The kingdom of the roslin, which is in the minds of the kingdoms of nature. Explain, as a group of roslin borrowed in Danish hour a camp on the Earth. Among the living roslin or herbarium specimens, know the representatives of the group. 3. Using the knowledge about the exchange of speech and the transformation of energy into the body of people, give scientifically explained pouring in on the exchange of words of dynamics, stresses, shkidlivyh calls, re-transmission.
1. Biology (from Greek. Bios life, logos science) science about life. Vona vivchaє live organisms, їkh budovu, development and promenade, intercourse with the middle of living and with іn living organisms. 2. Biology - the science of life, about living nature (div. Table. "System of Biological Sciences"). I. Biology is a science, її reaching in connection with the other sciences. The method of vivchennya living objects. The role of biology in the life and practical activity of people.
3. Basic methods in biology 1.observation (it is possible to describe biological phenomena), 2.comparison (yes you can know the underlying laws in Budov, life different organisms), 3.experiment about the knowledge (additional help to the reader in the knowledge of the authorities of biological objects), 4.modeling (there are processes that are inaccessible for the prevention of an experimental organizational development), processes of development of wildlife).
4. Reaching biology: 1). A description of the great number of species of living organisms that are on the Earth; 2). Development of the clerical, evolutive, chromosomal theory; 3). The development of molecular structural units of decay (geniv) served as the basis for the establishment of genetic engineering. 4). Practically storing to reach the current biology, as permitted by the industrial way, the meaning of the number of biologically active speeches.
6). The staff of the knowledge of the laws of the decline and the minimum reached great successes in the Silskoe State Prize for the establishment of new highly productive breeds of domestic food and varieties of cultivated roslin. 5). On the basis of vivchennya, interrelationship between organisms and the stems of biological methods of struggle with schoolchildren of agricultural cultures.
7). It is of great importance in biology to rely on the mechanisms of biosynthesis of biosynthesis, photosynthesis, which leads to the way of rejecting organic food speeches. In addition, in business (in business, when new machines and mechanisms are installed), the principles of organizing living things (bionics) to bring in Danish hour and give a significant economic effect to the future. The design of the bjolin honeycomb formed the basis for the preparation of "stylized panels" for the building
In such a situation, the basis for the improvement of food resources can be less intensive Silskoy government... An important role in the whole process of development of new highly productive forms of microorganisms, roslin and tvarin, rational, scientifically based vicariousness of natural riches is important.
1.Growing - autotrophy and building up to photosynthesis; 2.Presence of plastids with pigments in cells; 3.Cells otochenyu wall with cellulose; 4. The presence of vacuoles in cells classic juice; 5.Unlimited growth; 6.There are growing hormones-phytohormones; 7.Osmotic type of grub (rejection of lively speeches from viglyadi water razchinіv, scho coming through the keratin shell).
Pokritonasіnnі abo kіtkovі roslini - price the most viddіl of the day vishykh roslin, Scho narakhovuє close to 250 yew. Vidiv. Stink grow at all climatic zones i enter the warehouse of all biogeocenoses earthly coo... Tse to bring about this temple to the dumb minds of the earth.
Prystosuvannya among the pookritonnyh (kvitkovyh), but allowed them to occupy a permanent camp on the Earth: I. Vegetative organisms of krytkovyh roses reach the greatest folding and versatility. II. Kvitkovy volodyut is more thoroughly wired system, which will prevent more water supply of the dewline. III. For the first time a new organ appeared - a ticket. The ovules are stacked in a closed empty zav'yazi, approved by one or a decilcom of grown carpels. Nasinnya stowage in the plate. There was a subset of the delay, but there are very few changes in the number of groups roslinniy svitu... IV. Nayvazhivіshі re-implementation was added to the wired system. The main provincial elements of the xylem natomy of the tracheids are the judges, which will significantly accelerate the collapse of the viscid struma. Such a rank, pokritonasіnnі neglected additional opportunities in the competition struggle and in the end bag became, "winners" in the struggle for the beginning.
III. Vikoristovuchi knowledge about the exchange of words and the transformation of energy into the organisms of people, give a scientific explanation for the exchange of words of dynamics, stress, awkward calls, transfer. The body will reject a lot of speech, reworking, rejecting energy, or molecules that are necessary for the body to induce vlast tissues. Confirmed with a whole product exchange with the body. The success of the reactions of disimilation (the drop in speech from the vision of energy) and the assimilation (the synthesis of the speech necessary to the body) is called the exchange of speech. In a healthy body, the asymmetry and dissimilation are strictly balanced. All reactions to the exchange of speech are regulated by the nervous and endocrine systems. The destruction of the exchange of speech lies at the base of the bagatokh of the people who are ill.
1.Hypodynamia - a decrease in the activity of the body; Non-attention to the physical activity of the living speech is added to the reserve, which often leads to obesity. Tsiomu is also confused (2).
3. Stress є zachisnuyu reaction organism, which allows to see in the moment of insecurity. The stress of mobilization of the body's energy, superfluous hormones, increases the intensity of the heart-vascular activity and in. However, a strong and especially trivial stress can lead to the loss of strength of the people and the destruction of the conversation.
4. Even a strong negative inflow on the exchange of speech is given a constant intake of alcoholic beverages. In alcoholics, ethyl alcohol is oxidized, giving the body a little bit of energy, protesting at the same time, it’s even more oozing speech, so it’s driving in the cells of the liver and mogza. Alcoholics' appetite is gradually decreasing, and the stench ceases to live in normal drinks, fat and carbohydrates, which are reduced by alcoholic drinks, which leads to the destruction of the body. In chronic alcoholics, the stove is averted, the stench to get thinner, to see the behavior of the mutilation.
5. Strongly negative influx on the exchange of speech is also nada і kurіnnya, oskіlki vono ruynu legends and rejection by the organism of the necessary amount of sourness. In addition, the risk of malignant disease is malignant.
6. narcotic speech, Beruchi share in the exchange of speech, viklikayut zvikannya, in the forgiveness of the hopeful nikotin, alcohol and in. Supravodzhutsya lamkoy - gigantic pogirshennya self-respect. In such a rank, there is a physiological and psychological prevalence of drugs.
Achieving biology in current versions of the taxonomy of life
At the present time of the last scientific achievements of modern biological science, the following meaning of life is given:
Reaching the biology of the last hour led to the discovery of fundamentally new straits at science. The development of molecular structural units of decay (geniv) served as the basis for the establishment of genetic engineering. For additional methods, they create organisms with new ones, including those that do not exist in nature, with combinations of subdued signs and powers. Wonderful opportunities for the development of new varieties of cultivated grows and highly productive breeds of breeds, the establishment of effective medicinal preparations, etc.
Living nature ruled itself genіnі simply and wisely. She has one self-reproducing DNA molecule, on which the program of life is written, and more specifically, the whole process of synthesis, structure and function of the basic elements of life. In addition to saving the programs of life, the DNA molecule has one more important function - self-creation, copying the decline in the number of generations, the continuity of the thread of life. Once recognized, life is self-created in the majesty of versatility, as it will neglect the sense of style, attachment to the versatile minds of the middle and evolucy.
modern biotechnology
Modern biology is an area of smart and fantastic re-creation in biotechnology.
Biotechnology is based on living organisms and biological processes in industrial production. On this basis, mastered the mass production of piece bricks, old-fashioned and old-fashioned words, beyond the powers of the authorities, over-fermented natural products. Microbiological synthesis of enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, etc. is developing successfully. From the stasis of genetic technologies and natural biological materials, biologically active speech is synthesized - hormonal drugs and information, which stimulate immunity.
The current biotechnology allows the re-creation of wood, straw, and even roslinna sirovina in the price of living houses. It includes the process of hydrolysis of the intermediate product - cellulose - and neutralization of glucose from the added salts. Otrimanium of glucose is a livable substrate of microorganisms - old fungi. As a result of living of microorganisms, a light-brown powder is established - a high-quality grubby product, which can be replaced by close to 50% of white-brown and small vitamins. A lively middle ground for yeast fungi can serve and also to revenge the tsukor roschini, like a treacle stillage and a sulphite meadow, which can be established with cellulose virobnity.
Deyaki vidi fungi convert naphtha, fuel oil and natural gas into kharchov biomasu, bagatu bilkami. So, for 100 tons of unrefined fuel oil, 10 tons of oil can be trimmed, and 5 tons of pure fuel and 90 tons of diesel burner can be removed. Stilki zh drіzhіv vyroblyaєtsya from 50 tons of dry wood or 30 yew. M3 of natural gas. For the production of a given number of bricks, there would be a herd of cows with 10,000 heads, and for the purpose of the harvest, the majestic areas of green lands were required. The industry is automated, and other cultures grow a thousand times faster, less thinness. One ton of food grains will allow you to trim about 800 kg of pork, 1.5-2.5 tons of poultry, or 15-30 yew. Yayts and spares up to 5 tons of grain.
Practically storing the success of the current biology already in the Danish hour allows you to cut off the number of biologically active speeches by means of a promiscuous way.
Biotechnology, mabut, even in the closest ten years of a loan, is better than the situation, and it is possible to signify the appearance of the civilization of the XXI century.
genni technologies
Genetics is the most important area of contemporary biology.
Biotechnology was born on the basis of genetic engineering. There is a colossal number of companies at once, who are engaged in business in the whole region. Stink at everything: from licks, antibodies, hormones, grubs to technical speeches - over-sensitive sensors (biosensors), computer microcircuits, chitin diffusers for good acoustic systems. Genetic and engineering products won the light, they are safe in the environmentally friendly way.
At the cobbled stage of the development of genetic technologies, a number of biologically active spoluks were identified - insulin, interferon and in. Modern genetic technologies combine the chemistry of nucleic acids and proteins, microbiology, genetics, biochemistry and bring new insights into the evolution of problems in biotechnology, medicine and the civilian state.
Gennі technologies are based on the methods of molecular biology and genetics, tied to the straightforward designs of new ones, as long as genes do not exist in nature. The main operation of gene technology in the field of genes is the organism of a gene, which is a consumer product, as well as a group of genes and a group of DNA molecules that grow in cells of the organism.
DNA, which is stored and practiced in the nucleus, is not created only by itself. At the necessary moment of singing DNA-genes - they create their copies at a chemically similar polymer - RNA, ribonucleic acid, which, in turn, serve as matrices for the development of unnecessary organisms. The very bіlki viznachayut all the signs of living organisms. The main point of the pod_y is on the molecular level:
DNA -> RNA -> block
The central dogma of molecular biology is called so in a number of rows.
Gennі technologies led to the development of modern methods for the analysis of genes and genomes, and the stench, in its own way, - to the synthesis, to the point of constructing new, genetically modified microorganisms. Until the present hour, the nucleotide endpoints of the young microorganisms have been established, including industrial microorganisms, and those that are required for the advancement of the principles of organizing the genomes and for the development of the mechanisms of the European world. Industrial microbiologists, in their turn, reconsidered, knowing the nucleotide sequence of genomes of industrial strains, allow "programs" for those who smelled great.
The cloning of European (nuclear) genes in bacteria and the same principles is a method that inoculates the development of microbiology to a boisterous development. Fragments of the genomes of tvarin and roslin for their analysis tend to themselves in microorganisms. For a whole range of molecular vectors, carriers of genes, vikoristovuyu of piece-cut plasmids, as well as inert molecular devices for seeing and cloning.
For the additional help of molecular samples (DNA fragments with a singular nucleotide sequence), it is possible to start, say, if the donor blood is infected with the SNIDy virus. And the gene technologies for the identification of microbes allow the quest for all kinds of microbes, for example, in all the middle of the disease, for epidemics.
Gennіy technologies of virobnіstva vaccines are developed in two main directions. The first is the introduction of new vaccines and the introduction of a combined vaccine, so that we can stock up on decile vaccines. Another straightforward - otrimannya vaccines against ailments: SNIDu, painter, creeping ailment, and in.
per the rest of the rock Gennі technology significantly improved the efficiency of traditional strains-producers. For example, in the mushroom strain-producer of the antibiotic cephalosporin, the number of genes increased, which coding for expandase, the activity, which is responsible for the synthesis of cephalosporin. As a result, antibiotic viral growth has grown by 15-40%.
Held tsіlespryamovana robot genetichnіy modifіkatsії vlastivostey mіkrobіv, SSMSC vikoristovuyutsya in virobnitstvі hlіba, sirovarіnnі, molochnoї promislovostі, pivovarіnnі that vinorobstvі, dwellers zbіlshiti stіykіst virobnichih shtamіv, pіdvischiti їh konkurentospromozhnіst on vіdnoshennyu to shkіdlivih bakterіy i polіpshiti yakіst kіntsevogo product.
Genetically modified microbes to bring cinnamon to fight against schooly viruses and microbes and comas. for example:
The stiffness of the roselin to herbicides, which is important for the fight against the Bur'ians, to detect the fields and to reduce the yield of the cultivated roselin. Otrimano and vikoristovyut herb-resistant varieties of bavovnik, maize, ripak, soya, red beet, wheat and other grows.
The stiffness of the roslin to the coma-shkidnikiv. The development of a delta-endotoxin protein is seen as the growing strains of the bacterium Bacillus turingensis. The whole block is toxic for bagatech species of coma and safe for savts, including for people.
The stiffness of the roslin to the old ones. For the whole, genes are introduced into the genome of the honeycomb to block the multiplication of the airborne particles in the honeycombs, for example, interferon, nucleases. Otrimano transgenic roselin tyutyunu, tomatoes and alfalfa with the genome of beta-interferon.
Krym geni in the cells of living organisms, in nature there are also independent geni. Stinks are called viruses, which can cause infection. Viyavilosya, scho virus - tse not scho inshe, as packing in a white shell of genetic material. The shell is a purely mechanical attachment, like a bi-syringe, in order to pack it up, and then to inject geni, and only geni, into the cell-ruler and enter. With the help of the viral geni in the cells, you can repair the reproductions on your own RNA and your own library. All the prices are re-sowing the cell, it’s bursting, guinea, and the virus in thousands of copies starts to become infected and infects the cells.
A sickness, and innocent death victories alien, viral bilky. Yakshcho virus is "good", the people are not dead, but all life can be ill. A classic butt - herpes, a virus of presence in the body of 90% of people. Tsemiy of addiction viruses, invoke infecting people in a child's life and live in a new one permanently.
In such a rank, viruses - tse, in essence, vinaydene evolutive biological protection: a syringe, reminiscent of genetic material.
Now the butt is already in the current biotechnology, the butt of the operation is in the germinal cells of the beasts for the sake of noble goals. People find it difficult to use interferon - an important problem for Volodya's anti-virus and anti-tier activity. Interferon is violated by organisms, including human beings. Someone else's, who is not human, interferon is not possible for brothers to abuse people; Lyudina zh viroblyaє Zanadto little interferon for its vision with pharmacological purposes. Tom was thunderstruck. The gene of the human interferon buv of introductions into the bacterium great numbers The human interferon was napratsovuvala to the sedentary human gene. Infection, it is already the standard technique of stagnating in the womb. In the same way, and already to finish for a long time, genetic engineering insulin is carried out. With bacteria, however, there is a lot of folding when cleaning the required bottle of bacterial houses. To that, they can be repaired by developing, developing methods and introducing necessary genes in other organisms. Tse important, ale daє colossal perevagi. Infections, sprouts, even wider dairy products are available for the production of consumer food items for pigs and pigs. The principle here, even briefly and forgiven, is this. From food-grade eggs and insert into their genetic apparatus, for control of genes of food-grade milk, foreign genes, if necessary, to start the production of required proteins: interferon antibodies, and people need Then the eggs become late and turn into an organism. A part of the offspring started to give milk, to avenge the necessary bottle, and it’s easy to get it out of milk. To go is much cheaper, better and cleaner.
In the same way, the bully vivedeni cows, who give "zhynoche" milk (cow's milk with the necessary human bottles), are not so great for the individual vigoduvannya of human beings. And it’s a serious problem at once.
In general, it is possible to say that in a practical plan, people have reached the end of the borderline. Had to pour in on the genetic apparatus, including other organisms. A straightened, vibrant gene inflow, the so-called transgenic organisms - organisms, which be like alien geni, have come to the fore. DNA is a chain, which can be manipulated. In the last two or three ten years, methods have been discovered, for the addition of which it is possible to develop DNA in the necessary pieces and to glue it together with a certain piece of DNA. Moreover, it is possible to insert not only ready-made genes, but also recombination - combinations of children, including single-piece folded genes. Tsey directly won the title of genetic engineering. Lyudina became a genetic engineer. In his hands, in the hands of not the same thing that had been made in the intellectual world, there appeared bezmeless, gigantic powers - like the Lord God.
happy cytology
New methods, especially electronic microscopy, the collection of radioactive isotopes and high-speed centrifugation, allow the achievement of great successes in the vivchenna Budova and Clitini. In the development of a single concept of physical and chemical aspects of life, cytology is increasingly approaching the other biological disciplines. At tsyom її classic methods, Established on the fixation, farbuvanny and vivchenny clinics under the microscope, as and earlier they were of practical importance.
Cytological methods of vikoristovuyutsya, sprouts, in the selection of roslin for assigning the chromosomal store of roslinnykh cells. Such advances will give great help in the planning of experimental studies and evaluation of the results. An analogous cytological analysis is carried out on the cells of the people: it is allowed to develop deceased depressions, due to the change in the number and form of chromosomes. Such an analysis in the case of biochemical tests, for example, during amniocentesis for diagnostics of deciduous defects in the fetus.
However, it is more important to use cytological methods in medical diagnostics of malignant neoplasms. Cancer cells, especially in their nuclei, have specific snakes. Malicious approval is not a matter of fact, because it is not possible to develop in the normal process of development, as a result of the control of the development of systems, in the first place of genetics. Cytology є To complete the problem with a highly informative method of screening diagnostics of young manifestations of papilomavirus. The pre-session is held at both choloviks and women.
Description of the robot
At the present time of the last scientific achievements of modern biological science, the following meaning of life is given:
Reaching the biology of the last hour led to the discovery of fundamentally new straits at science. The development of molecular structural units of decay (geniv) served as the basis for the establishment of genetic engineering. For additional methods, they create organisms with new ones, including those that do not exist in nature, with combinations of subdued signs and powers. Wonderful opportunities for the development of new varieties of cultivated grows and highly productive breeds of breeds, the establishment of effective medicinal preparations, etc.
The Idea of Evolution of Living Nature at New Hour as opposed to creationism (in Latin "Torennya") is about the establishment of the light of God from nothing and the invincibility of the created light by the creator. Creation is like a glimpse of glory in the era of ancient antiquity and in the Middle Ages and in the history of culture.
The fundamental role in the eyes of the eyes of that hour was also played by the ideas of teleology - vchennya, for which everything in nature was dictated to a full extent and every development and development in the long run for the purpose. Teleology ascribes to the processes and manifestations of nature, such as being established by God (H. Wolf), or by the internal causes of nature (Aristotel, Leibnits).
Among other ideas of creation and teleology, an important role was played by the concept of intermingling the smallness of the species at the boundaries of the relatively tall children (as one single ancestor) in the midst of transformism - transformism. This concept was formulated by the prominent naturalist of the 18th century Georges Buffon in his 36-volume work "Natural History".
Transformism in the basis of its knowledge about the change and transformation of organic forms, similar to some organisms from among them. Among the preliminaries of nature and philosophers-transformists 17 and 18 there are most of the worlds also R. Guk, J. Lametri, D. Didro, E. Darvin, I. Goethe, E. Saint-Iler. All transformations were recognizable by the variety of types of organisms from the beginning of the day.
At the establishment of the idea of the Evolution organic light my role Systematics played - the biological science about the versatility of all the vital and all kinds of organisms, about the interrelationships and the birthplaces of all small groups(Taxons). The main systems of taxonomy are the definition of specific features of the skin type and the skin taxon of a specific rank, outlandish authorities in quiet taxa. The basics of taxonomy were laid in the works of J. Ray (thousand six hundred ninety three) and K. Linney (1735).
The Swedish naturalist of the 18th century Karl Linney was the first to find out about the binar nomenclature and staying in the distance with the piece classification of roslin and tvarin.
In 1751, the book "Philosophy of Botany" was published, in which K. Linney wrote: "The piece system of servants is not yet known to be natural. I dal: "The natural method for the rest of the meta botany".
Those who Linney call the "natural method", є by the nature of the deyak, the fundamental theory of the living is. The merit of Linney is that, through the stem of the piece system, he advances biology to the need to look at the colossal empirical material from the positions of the backward theoretical principles.
The great role in the formation and development of the idea of evolution of living nature has played a role in the sphere of education;
Preformism - in lat. "I foresee" - vchennya about the manifestation of material structures in the statues of the cells, which zoom in on the development of the embryo and signs of developing from the new organism.
Preforming vines on the basis of panuvav in the 17-18th centuries of the statement about the preformations, the organism that was formed is not preformed in the egg (egg) or spermatozoon (animalcy). The preforms (Sh. Bonny, A. Galler and іn) respected that the problem of the development of the dialect can be corrected from the positions of the backward principles of the butt, which can be perceived as a whole, without empirical messages.
Epigenesis is a price, which is important in the process of embryonic development, the actions and the last newly established organs and parts of the embryo are taken from the structureless substance of the fertile egg.
Epigenesis yak navchannya was bred in 17-18 centuries in the struggle with preformism. Epigenetic manifestations were developed by W. Garvey, J. Buffon, C. F. Wolf. Epigenetics have taken from the idea of the divine creation of the living and went to the scientific formulation of the problem of walking life.
In such a rank, in the 17-18th century, the Idea was celebrated historical changes Decaying sign of organisms, non-vortex historical development of living nature - the idea of the evolution of organic light.
Evolution - in lat. "Rozgortannya" is a historical development of nature. In the course of the evolution, in Persha, there are new views, so that the versatility of the forms of organisms is improved. In a different way, organisms adapt, so that they become preoccupied with the change of minds of the new middle age. Thirdly, as a result of the evolution of a step-by-step process, there will be a fabulous level of organization of living things: the stench will slow down and become more complete.
The transition from the announcement about the transformation of species to the idea of evolution, about the historical development of the species, allowing, in the first place, to see the process of establishing the visions from the history, as the constructive role of the factor in the historical development of the body of the new organism. historical process. The transition from transformism to evolu- tionism in biology, going back to the turn of the 18-19th century.
The first evolutive theory of the boule dates back to the two great victors of the 19th century - J. Lamarck and Ch. Darwin.
Jean Bathist Lamarck and Charles Robert Darwin set out the evolutionary theories, which are opposed to the order, the nature of the argumentation, the main reasons. The history of the lobes was likewise laid down in a fashionable way. Lamarck's theory did not reject the wide knowledge of the contenders, at that time Darwin's theory became the basis of the Evolutionary decision. In the Danish hour і Darwinism, і Lamarkіzm, we prodovzhuyut in science concepts, I want and in a reasonable way.
In 1809, Lamarck's book "Philosophy of Zoology" was published, in which the theory of the evolution of organic light was published.
Lamarck in tsіi downward giving іdpovіdі on nutrition, how to stand in front of the evolutive theory, the path of logical visnovs from the actions taken by him postulates. For the first time, I have seen two of the most important straight lines of evolution: the downward development of the simplest forms of life to all the more foldable and perfect and the formation of organisms attached to the fallowness from the middle of the "vertical" Lamarck Bouv was one of the first preliminaries of nature, which developed the idea of the evolution of organic light to the level of theory.
Lamarck, having included in his rationally new intelligence the role of the middle in the development of organic forms, interprets the meaning of the middle as an important factor, mind of the evolution.
Lamarck vvvazh, that the historical development of organisms is not vypadkovy, but a natural character and is seen in a straight line and unhealthy insight. Lamarck naming the price zalny ravnya organizing gradation.
By the ruinous power of gradation, Lamarck embraced "the pragmatic nature to progress", "pragmatic to the fullness", which is common to all organisms and was laid in them by the Creator. With the whole body of the building, it is worthy to react to any changes of the outgoing minds, pristosovatisya to the minds of the outgoing middle-class. The prisodennya Lamarck concretized in two laws:
1) actively vikorystovu
2) the changes, attached to organisms with the active vikorystanny of some organs and non-perishable ones, are taken from the offspring.
The role of the middle in the evolution of organisms is to be looked at in a rational way.
For straightforwardness in the evolutionary period, as looking at the historical development of living nature, as directly attaching organisms to the middle of living, vicorisation is the backbone name - ectogenesis (from the Greek. Words " The hunches of ectogenesis look at the evolution of the process of direct attachment of organisms to the middle and a simple change in organisms, so that organisms can be absorbed by the flow of the middle.
This is due to the evolution of organisms through only internal non-material factors ("the principle of understanding", "the strength of growth" and in.), by name- Autogenesis.
The aim is to look at the evolution of living nature as a process, independent from the outward minds, to be guided and regulated by internal factors. Autogenesis prototypal ectogenesis.
Ti, who to stitch for advanced molecular biology Mabut, already sounded, scho in the young nautsi, as she gained all the hardships in the third ten years of her discovery, great views come to the understanding often, to visit even more often. For only 17 years, the American James Watson and the English Francis Krik proponated the hypothesis about the budov DNA molecule, which, on the other hand, does not add to the idea, though, at that hour, there are more forms of genetics. Even sooner, downright in the fantastically style of term, Watson and Scream's thought about those that DNA does not write about all genes of organism, was brought up experimentally. Until the ear of sixty rockets, it became clear that genetic information from DNA molecules is transmitted to RNA molecules similar to them for their structure. Remain to get back to the special structures of cells - ribosomes, in which the synthesis of the protein is carried out. Creeps earlier G. Gamow (USA), F. Crick and іnshі set up a logically completed model of the genetic code. More importantly, it was said that it was said for whom genetic information is needed (synthesis of specific binaries, which means the power of life and the ability to function of life). Bulo is shown to encode the DNA molecules synthesized in Gamow's ribosomes (on Gamow's thought, three nucleotides, DNA rots), which are synthesized in ribosomes.
It is not enough to find out - to navigate the middle of even penetrating genetics, - as early as 1961, the cry and the three leaders were to "go out" with the staff about the out-of-the-way nature of the genetic code. True, before decryption, the warehouse of three triyoks, how to code amino acids, will be shown by the robot M. Nirenberg and D. Matteya, and you will feel in Moscow a bit of that same 2000 rock. First, it’s important to let it go, but in all, two and a half years later, the American M. Nirenberg and F. Leder proponyuyut the way, allowing the exact Budova of all 64 code words of the gene. Already through the history of genetics, they knew the decaying alphabet of nature.
Allegedly, our knowledge of the exact nature of the gene, the exact nature of the molecules around the information and transport RNAs has not been improved. In 1964-1965, the Halls in the USA and A. Baєv in the Russian Federation deciphered the first, the names of the molecules, which serve the genetic mystery, - the transport RNA molecules. In 1967, in the laboratory of A. Kornberg in the United States, for unsuccessful attempts to synthesize the synthesized DNA molecule of the phage 0X174. Through Rik G. Koran (Indian, who moved to the United States), in a clever zoom experiment, he synthesized the first gene for the transport RNA of others. I axis at a time, all through the pik, visions of the pure gene from the living DNA molecules!
It’s paradoxical that it’s grandiose for its idea, but it’s not an experiment by itself. Beckwith, widely seen in the field of molecular foundations for the implementation of genetic information, in the forefront of the head, as his colleagues have read, repaired the robot. It is very important for me to know the keys before the establishment of the old super-links about those, if the regulation of gene activity is being observed. According to the first, the ten itself (that is, the DNA sequence with a strictly assigned sequence of nucleotides) can be the arena of regulation. In such a way, the information of the RNA will be written off from the assets of the gene, and there will not be such a write-off from the repressed gene.