As a matter of fact, mindful of the evolutionary organic light. The theory of the evolution of organic light. danі, otrimanі in the selection of robots
Evolution of organic light.
The value of the Evolution.
Theory of Evolution.
Biological species, its population structure.
Diya of elementary factors on the population.
The biological evolution is based on the processes of self-creation of macromolecules and organisms.
Biological Evolution is an irreversible and direct historical development of living nature.
Biological Evolution Supervision:
Zmino genetic makeup of the population;
Forms of adaptations;
Osvita and vymyranny vydiv;
Reincarnation of ecosystems and biosphere as a whole.
Winery of the type of organisms and the newest middle. Skin can be found in and out of the minds of some of the others in the middle, which is shown to you.
1809 rik - Jean Bathist Lamarck zooserediv respect for the progressive development of organisms.
Principles of Evolution (according to Lamarck)
Іsnuvannya in organizmіv internal pragnennya to self-elaboration.
The health of the organisms pristosovuvatisya to the surroundings, to the sumptuous middle.
Parts of self-generated assets.
The transmission of the recessions is similar to fig.
Merit is important - 2 provisions. Lamarck didn’t know how to bring his theory, except for the bullet of the day-to-day empirical facts, so that he could prove his point of view. Piznishe vinik neolamarkizm.
K. Rouvier Developing the concept of the development of organic light from the non-organic, of the behavior of natural changes in organisms, of the development of the development of the development of living organisms in response to the incessant change of the call of the minds, of the decline in power and of the basic
Beketov in 1854 he spent the last week at the Roslin.
Rik 1858 - Darwin Having broken down in advance about the theory in the Linnaean suspension. A. Wallres Having broken also the visnovka and having written a sheet of Ch. Darwin, who before the time of writing the manuscript by Walres, Darwin had already nibbled a part of it. Darwin didn’t persist, having admitted the theory of the foreign Evolution, Alevin Doviv, that Evolution is true, and besides, in nature, there is a ruinous power of Evolution.
24 leaf fall 1859 I saw the robot Darwin "Walking the views of the path of the natural view".
Postulates of Darwin's theory.
The navkolishn_y light is not static, but gradually developing. You see it change without interruption, one see it, you see it change.
The evolutionary process is carried out stepwise and without interruption. The evolutionary process is not the same as the case of the fungus or the rapture.
Some organisms resemble a spiritual ancestor and are tied by family ties.
Theory of natural species.
Until the 30s of the 20th century, since the theory of synthetic evolution was introduced, there were a lot of changes. All theories can be divided into 4 groups:
monistic;
synthetic;
Theory of overwhelming rivnovagi;
The theory of neutral mutations.
Monistic theories explain the evolution of change by one factor.
Ectogenetic - snakes wicket without a middle middle.
Endogenetic - changes are controlled by internal forces, true lamarkism.
Vipadkovi podії ("vypadkovostі") - spontaneous mutations, recombinations.
Natural widbir.
Synthetic theories explain the evolution of change by way of bagatokh factors.
Lots of theories of Lamarckian directing;
Take a look at Ch.Darvin;
The early stage of "modern synthesis";
Happy step.
1926r - Chetverikov in "Experimental Biology" in the article "About the moments of the evolutionary process from the point of view lucky genetics". Having tied the deyaki of the facts of Darwin.
1935r - I. I. Vorontsov formulating the main provisions of the synthetic theory of evolution (11 postulates).
The theory of evolution is synthetic.
Nimenshayu one of the Evolution є Mistsev population.
The main factor of evolution is natural goodness.
Evolution is divergent in nature (convergent, parallel).
Evolution to be of a step-by-step nature (inodi streak-like).
The exchange of alleles and the reason for the generations to appear only in the boundaries of the same biological species.
Macroevolution is the path of microevolution.
The view is stored from bespidryadnykh odinits.
Understanding the mind is incomprehensible to the forms, as it does not conceal statistic reproduction.
Evolution is built on the basis of smallness (so-called tichogenesis).
The taxon is monophilic (resembling one ancestor).
Evolution is not transferred.
It became clear that the elementary unit of the Evolution is not one organism, but the population. It was established that the reason for the evolution is not an extremity factor, but the interaction between factors that are realized as a result of natural growth.
The synthetic theory of evolution is accepted by more people. All the assumptions are made on the level of micro-revolution, on the level of macro-revolution, there is a lack of support, so new evolutionary theories are being promoted.
Крім synthetic theory of tsіkava concept of overwhelming rіvnovagi. In evolution, there is a period of stability of species with short periods of boisterous formulation. The emergence of raptus mutations is linked to regulatory genes. However, roslin has no regulatory genes.
The theory of neutral mutations. Author - King, Kimura - 1970r. There was a message to see the laws in molecular biology... The main factor in molecular rivnіє not natural type, but type, which produces neutral or even more neutral mutations before they become fixed. There are changes in the last of the DNA triplets, as well as the change in the number. The DNA changes are summed up with the gene drift. The theory does not prohibit the role of natural species, albeit more important, but only a small part of the adaptive DNA changes. Most of the phylogenetic change is not intimidating, the stench is not selective, neutral and does not put any role on the evolution. Theory can prove: leucine KOLIR 6 triplet, and bazhanikh have new species tvarin. The change of a triplet in this vypadka does not change anything, however, the triplets of the small creatures show the function of the "key".
Zavatsky - "Signs of a biological species".
number;
type of organization / singing set of chromosomes;
vіdtvorennya (in the process of reproduction, the species is taken to itself);
discreteness (the type of іnu and evolutiveness as in the context of education);
ecological value. The type of attachment to singing minds, there is wine and competitiveness;
geographic visibility / area of the species;
development of forms - internal structure of the species - population;
history. View - a system that is designed to evolve;
style;
integrity. Species - tribal spirituality, determined by singing adaptations and internal species.
Food about those who are also a biological species, not a show. Basic concepts:
Philosophical and logical concept;
Biological concept;
Morphological concept.
For the philosophical and logical concept, the view is the category of misery. The headquarters of the authorities are characteristic for all representatives.
The morphological criterion is the addition of the philosophical and logical concept to living organisms. You see, it begins strictly for the obviousness of the populace of singing signs (Linnaeus, the greater number of pre-epochs of nature and taxonomies of the 18th - 19th centuries).
The biological concept is based on the fact that everything is seen in populations. Individuals are potentially built up to the point where they live, see it really, individuals may have a genetic program, formed in the process of evolution. Tse reproductive vitality, ecologic unit, genetic unit. The type of volodya is genetic isolation and reproductive isolation. The genetic structure is represented by the nature of the species. About the human eye is characterized by genetic versatility.
view- a group of morphologically similar organisms, which can be mentally motivated and potentially built up to the point where they are in natural minds.
Individuals do not want to live between themselves in a close relationship (without a middle ground); the stink of living in populations.
Signs of the population.
Population - a group can easily clash.
The panmix group is a reproductive unit.
Population is an ecological unit. Individuals are genetically suitable for ecological vimogs.
population- a group of individuals of the same species, to complete the entire population of the singing territory, it is possible to conflate among themselves in natural minds and to give birth to offspring.
The size of the population is unstable. Real populations of development for the form and number of individuals.
Population structure.
Spacious configuration;
Multiplication system;
The speed of migration.
Regardless of the spacious configuration, you see:
Great uninterrupted populations (tens and hundreds of kilometers).
Other colonial populations (according to the acute type).
In the multiplication system, the range of values is great.
Autogamous populations - multiply by the way of self-employment.
Allogamous populations - multiply by the way of the cross-fall.
In autogamous animals, they re-breed homozygous organisms, the fraction of heterozygotes is small.
Allogamous populations are characteristic for all creatures and deyakie roslin. The warehouse of alleles is initiated by mutations and, to a large extent, by recombinations of genes. Oskіlki offspring grow up to grow up, the share of heterozygotes is large. The numbers of genotypes reach the values characteristic of the Hardy - Weinberg law. Leave the factor of the evolution does not come, it doesn’t work. The factor of micro-evolution is the main factor of the evolution.
Evolution factor.
Mutational process.
Potik gen_v.
Drift gen_v.
Natural widbir.
The mutational process and the reason of the gene bring about the minority. The drift of genіv and natural wіdbіr її sort, work over it and start її share.
Mutational process. The mutant skin allele is even worse. Yaksho vin is neutral - to see eliminuvannya. Yaksho cinnamon - accumulate in the population.
Potik gen_v. A new gene can only be manifested as a result of mutation, or a population can be discarded when this gene is imaged from the other population. Potik genіv - transferring genіv from one population to the insha. Potential generations can be taken into account by the effect of the evolutionary process. Nose to the stream of generations of development.
Natural waste is stored in the following processes:
Rushiynyy (rectifying, progressive) vidbir - the rulings of Ch. Darwin.
Stable.
Disruptive (rozrivaє) Mauer.
Russian- Conjugation of vidbir, with a different population, change at once from the middle of living. Winikak with a gradual change in the population at once from the middle.
stable water- dobir, scho winyak, if the middle does not change, the population is well adapted, the extreme form, the number of growth is elimi- nated.
disruptive vidbir- seemingly, when you see an elimination of middle forms, and extreme options are taken. Genetic polymorphism. Chim is a polymorphic population, it is easier to go through the process of modification.
Drift gen_v. Viconation to the Hardy - Weinberg law is possible only in ideal populations. In small populations, the disease is growing. Variations of genotypes and frequencies of alleles during the transition from one generation to the last generation - gene drift, which is characteristic of a small population.
the population system is stored in a series of isolated colonies;
the populace is great size, it’s slow to speed up and I’ll know again for the rakhunok of individuals that we have seen;
there is a large population of corn on the cob for colonies. Individuals - the ancestors of the colonies.
theory Evolution organic light
Abstract >> Biologybecoming ideas Evolution organic light Often the role was played by the taxonomist - biologic science ... in articles of material structures, Yakі zumovlyuyut the development of the embryo і ... population-genetically doslіdzhen, yaka bully realized yogo ...
biologic map light
Abstract >> Biology... Evolution organic light Often the role was played by the taxonomist - biologic... material structures, ... vid_v before the idea Evolution, Historical development vid_v letting go, in Perche, looking at the process of lighting vid_v v yogo ... populations sick ...
theory Evolution (4)
Cheat sheet >> Biologylaw Evolution organic light... Theory ... view and opportunities yogo fake Evolution... About the winners of the people yak socially biology officials
Cob stages of biological evolution
The emergence of primitive cells meant the end of the prebiological evolution of the living and the ear of the biological evolution of life.
The first ones on our planet were single-lined organisms, there were primitive bacteria, but they didn’t have a nucleus, so it’s prokaryoti. Yak has already begun, the goals are single-line without nuclear organisms. The stinks were anaerobes, the splinters lived in an acid-free environment, and they were heterotrophs, the splinters were grabbed by ready-made organic spoluks of "organic broth", so to speak, synthesized in the course of a chemically evolving spirit. Energy exchange in the majority of prokaryotes depending on the type of wandering. Ale step-by-step "organic broth" as a result of active living, decreasing. In the world of twisting, deyaky organisms have become viral ways of forming macromolecules in a biochemical way, all the middle of the cells themselves behind additional enzymes. In such minds, the clitini appeared to be competitive, as they could cut off a larger part of the necessary energy without being in the middle of the prominence of the Sontsya. It is the process of chlorophyll formation and photosynthesis.
The transition of the living to photosynthesis and autotrophic type of feeding has become a turn in the evolution of the living. The atmosphere of the Earth has become "napovnuvatisya" sour, as for anaerobes it has become awkward. To that, the abundant one-lined anaerobes were bogged down, they were holed up in the acid-free midstows - swamps, and when they got hungry, they saw not sour, but methane. The third are addicted to sourness. For them, the central mechanism of exchange has become kisneve dikhannya, as it allowed the use of useful energy 10-15 times in the case of an anaerobic type of exchange - wanderings. The transition to photosynthesis is a trivial process and ended at about 1.8 billion rubles. In the course of photosynthesis in the organic speech of the Earth, more and more energy of the sleepy light was accumulated, which accelerated the biological circulation of speech and the evolution of the living as a whole.
In the sour middle, eukaryoti has been formed, tobto one-liner, the nucleus of organisms has been formed. Tse buli already more detailed organisms for photosynthetic building. Їx DNA is already concentrated in the chromosome, while in procarocytic cells, the spadkovs are sprinkled in all cells. Chromosomes of eukaryotes are concentrated in the nucleus of the cell, and the cell itself is already created without any changes. With such a rank, the daughter of Klin Eukarot Bula may be just as accurate as her mother's and small styles and chances for vision, skills and mothers.
Osvita roslin and tvarin
The present Evolution of the European Bula is tied with a pod on a roslinna and tvarinni cells. It also came to be found in the Proterozoic, since the Bula Earth is inhabited by single organisms (Table 8.2).
Table 8.2
Winning and expanding organisms in the history of the Earth (according to Z. Brehm and I. Meinke, 1999)
With the ear of evolution, eukarities developed in two ways, so that in them, in parallel, groups of autotrophic and heterotrophic habits were thrown into them, so that the integrity and autonomy of the living light became unbearable.
Roslinnі cells evolved in bіk change of building oversupply through the development of a hard cellulose shell, or directly to photosynthesis.
The creatures of the klitini evolved in the library of building up to oversubstantiation, as well as the detailed methods of eating and seeing the products of recycling.
The next step in the development of the living has become the status of multiplication. It won about 900 million rubles.
The given croc in the evolution of the living has become close to 700-800 million rubles in that case, if large organisms with differentiated til, tissue and organs, which show the singing functions. Ce boules of sponges, intestines, arthropods, etc.
Stretching the Proterozoic and on the cob of Paleozoic dewlines inhabit the main seas and oceans. All green and brown, golden and red water growth.
Years in the seas of the Cambrian, there were already a lot of types of creatures. The stench was special and comfortable. Among sea creatures such as pores, crayfish, sponges, corals, molluscs, trilobites, etc.
In the end of the Ordovician period, great meat and backbone creatures began to appear.
Former evolution of the ridges went straight into the slit riboforms. The Devonians began to have also two-water ribs - amphibias, and then komakhs. step by step nervous system as a heritage of vidoskonalennya forms of representation.
An especially important stage in the evolution of the forms of a living boule is that of growing and growing organisms from water to land and further afield, there are more species of terrestrial dews and twins. From them, there are also highly organized forms of life. The journey of the roslin to the land was spent in the small silur, and the active conquest of the land by the ridges grew in the carbon.
Moving to life in the daily environment of living organisms even more and more times and allowing the viralization of all living organisms. Vіn thrivingly at the pace of the evolution of the living on Earth. Lyudin became the pinnacle of the evolution of the living.
Life in the midst of food "zbilshila" masu tila organisms, in the third place there is no lively speech, because of the lack of water, passing light, sound, warmth, a bit of sourness in a new food. Before everything else, it is necessary to stick with it. The first to attach themselves to the minds of life on land are ridge boules of reptiles. Oh, the egg bullets were baked and sour for the embryo, pry with a hard shikalupa, they were not afraid of hanging.
Approximately 67 million rubles to that time in the natural environment were taken by birds and ssavts. The breeders of warm-bloodedness ssavts_v stink shvidko conquered a permanent camp on Earth, which is tied to the minds of the cold on our planet. At the same time, warm-bloodedness itself has become a viral factor of vision. Vona began to notice a permanently high temperature and stability of the function of internal organs of the workers. The life-giving of sowers and the vigor of children with milk has become a straining factor in the eve of the evolution, which allows one to multiply in the minds of the middle class. The nervous system has been adjusted to the development of different forms of attachment to organisms.
There were a lot of hooded creatures on hoarding and hooded houses, and the first coma hooded people bowed to the ear of the evolutive placental and general organisms.
The virulent stage of the evolution of life on our planet was the creation of a corral of primates. In the Cenozoic, approximately 67-27 million years ago, primates were distributed on the lower and human-like maws, which were the ancestors of the lucky people. The reasons for the accusation of the lucky people in the process of the Evolution were formed in deeds. A collection of buv herd way of life. Allowing me to formulate the foundation of a future social spirit. Moreover, even in comas (bjoli, murahi, term), the Biosocial led to the loss of individuality, then among the ancient ancestors of the people, navpaki, she developed individual rice individuals. Tse has become a hard-pressed rush_ynoy force of development to the team.
The upcoming croc of the Evolution of life was broken in the image of the appearance of a wise person (Homo sapiens). Lyuda herself is smart, the building is straightforward to create a new world, to create a piece of mind, and to re-create a view of our planet.
Evolution theory of Ch. Darwin
Pid evolutsionyu (in lat. evolutio- development, rozgortannya) followed by the process of trivial, step-by-step, general changes, which lead to basic new changes (the establishment of new structures, forms, organisms and types).
The idea of a trivial and step-by-step change of all kinds of creatures and roslin was watched back to Ch. Darwin. In such a situation, Aristotle, the Swedish naturalist K. Linney, the French biologist J. Lamarck, the fellow of Ch. Darwin, the English naturalist A. Wallace and the іnshі vchenі were caught up in the early hour.
It was the unqualified merit of Charles Darwin that it was not the idea of Evolution itself, but that the principle of natural selection and the concept of Evolution into one string of the theory of Evolution was first introduced into nature. In his formative theory, Ch. Darwin was guided by the great factual material, the experiment and the practice of selection robotics in the development of new varieties of roslin and young breeds of food.
At the time of Ch. Darwin, he came to the end of the day, because of the impossibility of the developmental manifestations of living nature, three principles of their bureaucrat are clearly seen in the evolution of the living, who are united by a short formula: smallness, recession, natural appearance.
It’s a fundamental principle to ruffle on the offensive and guard over the light of the living - tse:
1. Minlity. Vona is in power, be it a group of tvarin and roslin, organisms are seen one from one in a bagatokh in the midst of... In nature, it is unfortunate that there are two identical organisms. Minlity is not in my power of living organisms, it is manifested permanently and everywhere.
For Ch. Darwin, in nature there are two kinds of minorities - singular and unassigned.
1) singing ministry(Adaptive modification) - the essence of all individuals of the same kind in the singing minds of the new middle-class by the same rank of reactivity to the mind (їzhu, klіmat і etc.). per happy news, Adaptive modifications are not transmitted in recessions, and the latter, in its greatness, cannot provide material for organic evolution.
2) unassigned ministry(Mutations) wikklics of hundreds of changes in the body in themselves in different directions... The number of people in the first generation will be of a slow-moving character, with a small number of responses in the first generation, it will be accepted in the offensive. Unassigned minlity may be tied with change dovkilla, Ale not bezposeredno, yak in adaptive modifications, but outdated. To that, behind Ch. Darwin, the most important role in the evolution of the world is played by the unimportant change.
2. The number of species is permanent. The number of organisms in the skin type, which is shown on light, is more than that number, as you can know how and how; Protein the number of skin species in the minds of nature will be evidently permanent.
3. Competitive individuals. Oskilks populate more individuals, one can never see in nature the struggle for life, competition for life and life.
4. Adaptability, bias of organisms. Zminy, which lays down to the organism of living in any singing middle, give their masters a pass in front of other organisms, as the men have become preoccupied with their minds and, as a result, have lost their minds. Idea "vision of the most pristosovanih" is the head in the theory of natural species. 5. Vidvorennya "in the distance" of the characteristics of the middle of the site. Individuals give birth to offspring, and with such a rank "in the distance", they allowed the vision of positive snakes to be transmitted to the next generation.
The essence of the evolutionary process of polarity in the uninterrupted attachment of living organisms to the intelligent minds of the natural environment and in the emergence of more and more foldable organisms. To this, biological evolution is straightened from simple biological forms to larger folding forms.
In such a rank, natural change, which is the result of the struggle for nuvannya, є the main factor of the Evolution, which directs and signifies the evolution of change. While the wintry withers, pass through the wrinkle of the bagatokh pokolin. One of the fundamental living rice - the dialectics of the interaction of the organic system and the middle - is seen in the natural form itself.
Without any reservations of the Evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin Mali and inadequacies. So, Vona could not explain the reasons for the appearance of singing structures in the bodies of the organisms, such as being built by marnimis; in the bagatokh types of boules from the daytime transitional forms and other creatures and copalins; With a weak person, there is also a noticeable decline. There were some shortcomings in the main reasons and factors in organic evolution. Already in the XX century. it became clear that the theory of Ch. Darwin would require additional support and the last one biological science. This was a change of mind for the development of the synthetic theory of evolution (STE).
Synthetic theory of evolution
Achievement of genetics in the development of the genetic code, progress in molecular biology, embryology, evolutionary morphology, popular genetics, ecology, and some of the other sciences, point to the need for genetics for the knowledge of modernity. This common practice gave rise in the other half of the XX century. a new biological paradigm - the synthetic theory of evolution. Oskilki won based on the theory of Ch. Darwin, її is called neo-Darwinist. Theory is viewed as a non-classical biology. The synthetic theory of Evolution has allowed for some rubbing against the Evolutionary theory and genetics. STE is still not a small physical model of evolution, but rather a richly complex approach, as it lies in the basis of a modern evolutionary biology. The whole synthesis of genetics and evolutive vchennya appeared as a strong fungus in the development of genetics itself, as well as the modern evolutive theory. The whole streak marked the beginning of a new center of the system of biological knowledge and transition of biological science to a modern non-classical development. STE is often called the out-of-the-box theory of Evolution, which is the supremacy of the Evolutionary ideas of Ch. Darwin, the foremost rank of natural selection with the recent results of recent developments in the area of recession and diminutiveness.
The main ideas of the STE boules were laid down by the Russian geneticist S. Chetverikov in 1926 in the first place in popular genetics. The idea of \ u200b \ u200bthe bully was developed and developed by American geneticists R. Fisher, S. Wright, English biologist and geneticist D. Haldane and the ever-present Russian geneticist M. Dubinin (1906-1998).
The main change in the mind for the synthesis of genetics from the theory of evolution was the biometric and physical-mathematical approach to the analysis of evolution, the chromosomal theory of decay, empirical dosage Minority of natural populations and in.
The pivot point of STE is a statement about those who have an elementary warehouse evolution є not a species (for Darwin) and not an individual (according to Lamarck), but a population. The very won is a complete system of interconnection of organisms, which is all the data for self-development. The choice is not made because there are some signs of an individual, but the whole population, the genotype. However, tsei look for additional signs of phenotypic signs of individuals, before the appearance of new signs in case of changes in biological generations.
An elementary unit of decay is the gene. Vin is a delink of a DNA molecule (or chromosomes), which is the origin of developmental signs of organism. Radianskiy geneticist M.V. Timofev-Resovskiy (1900-1981) having formulated the provisions about manifestations and factors of evolution. Wono polyagaє in the offensive:
The main primary factor of the synthetic theory of evolution is the natural change, a direct evolutionary process. Purely biologically significant individuals are like organism, having given offspring, to be assessed as being included in the gene pool of the population. About the selection in the population є the phenotype of the individual individuals. The phenotype of an organism surrounding it begins and forms on the basis of realizing the genotype information in the minds, so that the middle ground changes. During the generation of generations, the phenotypes should be adjusted to a selection of genotypes.
Evolution is a single process. STE has two evolutive races: microevolution, to pass on a population-specific level in an albeit short hour on adjacent territories, and macroevolution, how to take place on the basis of a variety of conditions, denoting the outward laws and directness in the historical development of the living.
microevolution- the price of the evolutionary processes, which are in the populations of the species, to produce up to changes in the gene pool of these populations and before the adoption of new species. Vona will be based on mutational minusculeness under strict control of natural resources. With one dzherel, appear clearly new signs of mutation. Vidbir is a creative vibrating factor that guides the elementary evolutive changes along the path of adapting organisms to the smallest minds of the middle. The nature of the processes of micro-revolution is infused with changes in the number of populations (sickness of life), exchange genetic information mіzh them, as well as isolation. Mikroevolution is to bring about, before the change of the whole gene pool, it looks like a whole (phylogenetic evolution), or until it comes from a father on the cob like a new form (modification).
macroevolution- tse evoluciyny re-development, scho to produce taxons until the wintry, lower species (family, pounding, class). There are not a few typical mechanisms, and you should follow the additional processes of micro-revolution. Gradually accumulate, micro-evolutionary processes to recognize their own evolution in the manifestations of macroevolution. Macroevolution є the picture of the evolutive changes, which is promoted in the wide historical perspectives, is considered to be a global one. To this, only on the basis of macroevolution, the outward tendencies, regularities and principles of the evolution of living nature, are manifested, but not to be cautious about the microevolutionary revolution.
The occasional STE manifestation will take into account those evolutive changes of a kind and non-directional character, some of the kind of mutations for them a kind of material. Evolution is done stepwise and divergently through the appearance of small, type mutations. With a whole new life, the form is established through the great decline of change, the right to life, such as the beginning of the natural selection. A potent and step-by-step evolutionary process can be of a mother and a streak-like nature, of being tied by the wins of the minds of the midst of the community as a result of bifurcation processes in the development of our planet.
The synthetic theory of Evolution is not like a canon, which has caught the system of theoretical propositions. In the young range, new lines of thought are formed, and there will be and will be a fundamental view, which will give a sense of the evolutionary processes of the living.
For the occasional, important practical knowledge of the CTE є the development of optimal ways of managing the evolutionary process in the minds of the constantly growing anthropogenic grip on the natural middle ground. Tsya theory vikoristovuyutsya in case of viral problems in relation to people and nature, nature and human suspension.
However, the synthetic theory of evolution has some spiritual moments and difficulties, which provide a basis for the development of unprecedented concepts of evolution. Before them, for example, the theory of nomogenesis, the concept of punctualism and deyaki inshi are referred to.
The theory of nomogenesis was promoted in 1922 by the Russian biologist L. Berg. Vona is based on the statements about those who evolutia - not even the programming of the process of realizing the internal incomprehensible kinds of living singing laws. The living organism is ruled by the inner power of nature, as it is directly from the last minds, it is directed to the acceleration of living structures. At the end of the meeting, L. Berg ordered to act on the basis of convergent and parallel evolution of the groups of growers and creatures.
One of the recent developments was the discovery of non-modern concepts є punctualism. Hackers are directly involved in the process of evolu- tion, and the process of evolution is similar - the way of small and quick strikes, at least 1% of the evolutionary hour falls. Rashta stays in stability 99% of the hour. In extreme cases, up to a new species, they can be found in small populations, where only ten individuals can be found, stretching out one or more deciduous generations. The qia concept spirals onto a genetic base, laid down by molecular genetics and modern biochemistry. Punctualism is a general genetic-population model of species development, Ch. Darwin's idea about species and species as species emerge. Punctualism and respect for the molecular genetics of individuals like the power of the mind. The idea of \ u200b \ u200bRose of macro- and micro-revolution and independence of the factors that they provide for the best concept of value.
All in all, in a possible way, there is only one theory of life, but a single synthetic theory of evolution from the unprecedented concepts of the development of living nature.
Evolutionary picture to light. Global Evolutionism
Idea for the development of the world є for the best idea of the world civilization. In its distant forms of thoroughness, won began to penetrate into natural science in the 18th century. Ale vzhe in the XIX century. you can boldly name the capitals of the ideas of the Evolution. At the same time, the concept of development began to penetrate into geology, biology, sociology and humanities of science. In the first half of the XX century. science has recognized the evolution of nature, suspension, people, the ale philosophical principle of the development of the future.
I only until the end of the XX century, natural science has become more theoretical and methodological basis for the establishment of a single model of universal evolution, the emergence of universal laws of directing and ruinous forces of evolution of nature. Such a basis is the theory of self-organization of matter, which represents synergetics. (Synergetics is already the science of organizing motherhood.) sleep systemі planet Earth (geogenesis), living life (biogenesis), people і human suspension (anthroposocyogenesis). Such a model of the development of nature is also called global evolu- tionism, and some of the most interesting and in thought it seems to be the manifestation of motherhood in a single process of self-organization of nature.
Due to the global evolution of the mind, the concept of the development of the whole world as to develop in the hour of the natural whole. At the same time, the whole history of Vsesvit, repairing from great vibuhuі finishes the people s opinions, we look at how one process, de cosmic, chemical, biological and social types of evolu- Cosmic, geological and biological chemistry in a single process of evolution of molecular systems represents fundamental transitions and the inevitability of transmutation into living matter. Already, the most important regularity of global evolution is to direct the development of the whole (universum) to the development of its own structural organization.
In the concept of universal evolution, an important role is played as an idea of natural vision. Here you will find a new one as the result of choosing the most effective formulas. Ineffective new solutions will be discarded as a historical process. Clearly the new stage of organizing the matter "hardens" the history of the lack of time, if it seems to be good, remember in yourself the advance of the historical development of the matter. Tsya regularity is especially brightly manifested for the biological form of the ruku, the ale of power in the face of all the evolutive matter.
The principle of global evolu- tionism is based on the rationalization of the internal logic, the development of the cosmic order of speeches, the logic of the development of the whole world as one whole. For such intelligence, the role of video is important anthropic principle. The essence of this lies in the fact that the perception and knowledge of the laws of the whole world and the world are conducted in a human mind. The nature is like that, yak won є, only to that, which is in niy є lyudin. In fact, it seems, the laws induce Vsesvita to blame, but you won’t be sure if she gave birth to a sposter; yakbi stinks bully іnshim, Vsesvit just any bulo b pіznavati. The anthropic principle places an emphasis on the inner unity of the laws of the history of the Evolution of the World and of the changes in the judgment and evolution of living matter right up to anthroposocyogenesis.
The paradigm of universal evolu- tionism є further development and advancement of bright picturesque paintings to light. In addition, the very idea of global evolu- tionism is glorious in nature. By a provincial note є the establishment of a direct process of self-organization and the development of processes in the scale of the All-Union. Our hour of the idea of global evolu- tionism of the vicon has a twofold role. On one side, wine represents light and integrity, allowing to comprehend the zagalny laws of the buttya in their unity; on the other side - the natural knowledge of the emergence of the singular laws of the Evolution of Mother in all structural races and in all stages of self-development.
Federal Agency for Education
GOU VPO "Chelyabinsk State University"
Institute of Economics Haluzei, Business and Administration
Department of Economics Galuzei and Rinkiv
ESSAY
On the topic "Theory of Evolution of Organic Light"
On the subject of "Concepts of modern natural science"
Chelyabinsk
introduction 4
1. Formation of the development idea in biology 5
2. Charles Darwin Theory of Evolution 11
3.antidarvinism 14
4. Fundamentals of Genetics 16
5. Synthetic theory of Evolution 20
visnovok 29
Resources of the global Internet 32
Entry
The recent progress of science and technology is collapsing into the name of the brand. Allowing people to know the nature of nature, having forced themselves to use natural resources, with which help people can wander in the vastness of the cosmic space, earth crust but rather rich. Ale, unimpressed at all, until now there is a mystery of life on the planet Earth.
Surely, in one of the hypotheses of life, I spent the ice in a little piece of ice. If I want a lot of vvazhayut, that the presence in the atmosphere in the atmosphere of carbon dioxide, without having given the attention of hothouse minds, they are vvazhayut, that winter is panuval on the Earth. Fragments of meteorites brought in from space, wikidi from hydrothermal jellies and chemical reactions, which are brought in during electric discharges in the atmosphere, bullets amiaku and such organic spoluk, Yak formaldehyde and cyanid. Drinking into the water of the Svitovoy ocean, the stench froze right there. In the case of crooked comrades, the molecules of organic speech were closely connected and entered into the interaction, which led to the approval of glucine and the other amino acids.
Charles Darwin and his fellows respected that life could be found in water. From the point of view it is a good idea to be able to see it in a given hour. In a closed and sometimes small water organic speech, Brought to flow into new waters, could accumulate in the necessary quantities.
And maybe buti, life in the areas of volcanic activity? Bezposeredno pislya established the Earth was itself a fire cool magmi. When volcanoes erupt with gases, they evolve from the melted magma onto the earth's surface, evolving chemical reactions, which are necessary for the synthesis of organic molecules.
1. Formation of the development idea in biology
The Idea of the Evolution of Living Nature at New Hour as opposed to creationism (in Latin "creation") - the idea of the establishment of the light by God from nothing and the inviolability of the created light by the creator. Creation is like a glimpse of glory in the era of ancient antiquity and in the Middle Ages and in the history of culture.
The fundamental role in the eyes of that hour was also played by the ideas of teleology - vchennya, for which everything in nature was dictated to a full extent and every development and development in the future was based on goals. Teleology ascribes to the processes and manifestations of nature, which are either established by God (H. Wolf), or by the internal causes of nature (Aristotel, Leibnits).
Among other ideas of creation and teleology, an important role was played by the concept of intermingling the smallness of views at the boundaries of generally narrow-minded children (as one single ancestor) in the midst of transformism. This concept was formulated by the prominent naturalist of the 18th century Georges Buffon in his 36-volume work "Natural History".
Transformism in the basis of its knowledge about the change and transformation of organic forms, similar to some organisms from among them. Among the preliminaries of nature and philosophers-transformists 17 and 18 there are most of the same people R. Hooke, J. Lametri, D. Didro, E. Darwin, I. Goethe, E. Saint-Iler. All the transformations were recognizing the change in the types of organisms from the beginning of the day.
In the formation of the Idea of Evolution of Organic Light, the role of the taxonomist has played a role - a biological science about the development of all existing and variable organisms, due to the differences in the family of groups. The main systematics specialists are the definition of specific features of the skin species and the skin taxon to the rank of the skin, the definition of backward powers in quiet taxa. The basics of taxonomy were laid in the works of J. Ray (1693) and K. Linney (one thousand seven hundred and thirty five).
The Swedish naturalist of the 18th century Karl Linney was the first to find out about the binar nomenclature and to stay in the distance with the piece classification of roslin and tvarin.
In 1751, the book “Philosophy of Botany” was published, in which K. Linney wrote: “The piece system of servants is only too quiet for a while, as long as it is not known to be natural. Persha to drive it into a deprivation of rosp_znavati roslini. Learn the nature of the growth of a friend to tell us. I dal: "The natural method for the rest of the meta botany".
Those who Linney call the "natural method", so that by the essence of the deyak, the fundamental theory of the living is. The merit of Linney is that, through the stem of the piece system, he advances biology to the need to look at the colossal empirical material from the positions of the backward theoretical principles.
The great role in the formation and development of the idea of evolution of living nature was played by the language of education, for which in the New hour the prototype of preformism and evolution is characteristic.
Preformism - in lat. “I foresee” - the appearance of material structures in the articles of the cells, which zoom in on the development of the embryo and signs of developing from the new organism.
Preforming vines on the basis of panuvav in the 17-18th centuries of the announcement about the preformations, the organism that was formed is not preformed in the egg (egg) or spermatozoon (animalcy). Preforms (Sh. Bonny, A. Galler et al.) They respected that the problem of the development of the intelligentsia can be corrected from the positions of the backward principles of the boot, but that it can be perceived in a wicked manner, without empirical messages.
Epigenesis is a price, which is important in the process of embryonic development, the actions and the last newly established organs and parts of the embryo are taken from the structureless substance of the fertile egg.
Epigenesis yak navchannya was bred in 17-18 centuries in the struggle with preformism. Epigenetic manifestations were developed by W. Garvey, J. Buffon, C. F. Wolf. Epigenetics have taken from the idea of the divine creation of the living and went to the scientific formulation of the problem of walking life.
In such a rank, in 17-18 centuries, the Idea was celebrated historical changes Decaying sign of organisms, non-vortex historical development of living nature - the idea of the evolution of organic light.
Evolution - in lat. "Rozgortannya" is a historical development of nature. In the course of the evolution, in Persha, there are new views, so that the versatility of the forms of organisms is improved. In a different way, organisms adapt, so that they become attached to the change of minds of the most recent middle-class. Thirdly, as a result of the evolution of a step-by-step process, there will be a zagalny level of organizing living things: the stench will slow down and become more complete.
The transition from the announcement about the transformation of species to the idea of evolution, about the historical development of the species, allowing, in the first place, to see the process of establishing the visions from the history, as the constructive role of the factor in the historical development of the body of the new organism. historical process. The transition from transformism to evolu- tionism in biology, going back to the turn of the 18-19th century.
The first evolutive theory of the boule dates back to the two great victors of the 19th century - J. Lamarck and Ch. Darwin.
F 
en Bathist Lamarck and Charles Robert Darwin established the evolutionary theories, as opposed to the order, the nature of the argumentation, the main reasons. The history of the lobes was likewise laid down in a fashionable way. Lamarck's theory did not reject the wide knowledge of the contenders, at that time Darwin's theory became the basis of the Evolutionary decision. In the Danish hour і Darwinism, і Lamarckism, we prodovzhuyut in scientific concepts, I want and in a reasonable way.
In 1809, Lamarck's book "Philosophy of Zoology" was published, in which the theory of the evolution of organic light came into being.
Lamarck in tsіi downwards giving advice on nutrition, how to stand in front of the Evolutionary theory, the path of logical visnovs from the actions taken by him postulates. For the first time, I saw two most important straight lines of the evolution: the downward development of the simplest forms of life to all the more foldable and perfect and the formation of organisms stuck in the fallowness from the "middle call" of the vertical Lamarck Bouv was one of the first preliminaries of nature, which developed the idea of the evolution of organic light to the level of theory.
Lamarck, having included in his rationally new intelligence the role of the middle in the development of organic forms, interprets the meaning of the middle as an important factor, mind of the evolution.
Lamarck vvazhav, that the historical development of organisms is not vypadkovy, but a natural character and is seen in a straight line and unhealthy insight. Lamarck naming the process of promotion of the outbound rivnya of organizing gradation.
By the ruinous power of gradation Lamarck has enthralled “nature's pragmaticness to progress”, “pragmaticness to the fullness”, a link to the power of all organisms and was laid in them by the Creator. With the whole body of the building, it is highly responsive to any changes of the outgoing minds, pristosovuvatisya to the minds of the outlying middle. The prisodennya Lamarck concretized in two laws:
actively vikorystovuatsya organ is able to grow, and not needed znikaє;
The changes that are attached to organisms with the active protection of some organs and non-protection of the latter, are taken from the offspring.
The role of the middle in the evolution of organisms is to be looked at in a rational way.
For straightforwardness in evolutive vchenni, as they look at the historical development of living nature as in direct attachment of organisms to the middle of living, vikoristovuyutsya the backward name - ectogenesis. The hunches of ectogenesis look at the evolution of the process of direct attachment of organisms to the middle and a simple change in organisms, so that organisms can be absorbed by the flow of the middle.
Navchannya, is explained by the evolution of organisms through only internal nonmaterial factors ("the principle of understanding", "by the power of growth" and іn.)
The aim is to look at the evolution of living nature as a process, an independent kind of foreign minds, to be guided and regulated by internal factors. Autogenesis prototypal ectogenesis.
Autogenesis is close to vitalism - the currents of life in biology, where life is explained by the presence in the organisms of nonmaterial supernatural power ("life force", "soul", "entelechia", "archeology", "archeology") Vіtalizm - from the Latin "life" - I will explain the life of the phenomenon with a special non-material ear.
In its own way, the idea of the evolution of organic light developed in the theory of catastrophes.
F 
The French biologist Georges Cuv'є (1769-1832) wrote: “Life has more than once hostile to our land with terrible podiyas. Some living things became a victim of catastrophes: some, sacks of land, boulders were glazed by floods, those who inhabited the water, appeared on land at once from the bottom of the sea, the most races of the earth were overwhelmed by the ice. ".
So look, Cuv'є became the forerunner of the theory of catastrophes - a concept, in which the idea of a biological evolution has started as the development of global geological processes has gone from the great idea.
The theory of catastrophes (catastrophe) is concerned with the phenomenon of the common geological and biological aspects of the evolution.
In the theory of catastrophes, the progress of organic forms is explained through the knowledge of the immutability of the environment.
In opposition to the catastrophe, the henchmen of the concept of evolution came up, as they also focused on geological problems, but they were aware of the similarity of recent and long-standing geological processes of the evolution.
Uniformism has evolved along with the success of classical mechanics, the first for all celestial mechanics, galactic astronomy, the manifestation of the endlessness and endlessness of nature in the vastness of that hour. In the 18th half of the 19th century, the concept of uniformism was destroyed by J. Getton, C. Lyell, M.V. Lomonosov, K. Goff and I. The whole concept spirals into the manifestation of the uniqueness and uninterruptedness of the laws of nature, of the continuity of the history of the Earth; during the day of intense coups and strikes in the history of the Earth; pidsumovannih vidhilen stretching great periods in an hour; Potential turnover of manifestations and progress in development.
2. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution
English teaching Charles Darwin, on view from Zh.b. Lamarck, having brutalized respect for those who want to be alive, but to be alive, and to enjoy the life, and the individuals of the same species are not the same.
Vchennya Ch. Darwin is based on the great factual material, chosen for an hour to rise in price and to bring the validity of this theory, as well as on scientific achievements (geology, chemistry, paleontology, rural and all anatomy), and this Darwin for the first time, having seen the evolution of the evolution, is not at the same organisms, but at the sight of internal groups.
In 1859, Darwin's book “Walking the Way of the Way of the Natural Vidboru, or Saving the Way in the Struggle for Life” was published, in which he explained the mechanism of the evolutionary process. Gradually razmіrkovuyuchi about the destruction of the causes of the evolutive process, Ch. Darwin came up to the most important for all theory submissions about the struggle for insight. The essence of the idea, at first glance, is even simpler: the skinny look of the building up to an infinite breeding, and the resources are necessary for breeding, concatenation. As a taste of the struggle for natural goodness, for the vision and success of the offspring of the most attached organisms. Along with the facts, Ch. Darwin was able to bring that natural energy is the most important factor in the evolutionary process in nature, and a piece of energy that is so important is the role in the development of breeds of food and varieties of roslin.
Ch. Darwin, having formulated a statement about a piece-like appearance, he saw two forms: methodical, chi evidence, and non-evidence.
Nesvidomiy vidbir - the most early form of a piece-like vidboru, when a person does not put a specific meta in front of him, but he doesn’t put a specific mark in front of himself, but he doesn’t put a certain amount in front of him, but he doesn’t care for himself with organisms (roslinny or creatures).
Methodical kindness is a creative process, which is characterized by a team, but a breeder set in front of himself a zavdannya vivest breed of twarins, or a variety of roslin with state-of-the-art signs.
Darwin has shown the singing visuals of the piece and natural selection.
Ch. Darwin, having also formulated the principle of differentiation of signs, is even more important for the mindfulness of the process of establishing new species. As a result of the natural selection, there are forms that appear as a cob look and are attached to the specific minds of the middle. Over the course of the year, the development of forms before the appearance of great insights is not enough for the cob. As a result, they form a sense of the signs. In a trivial hour, there is a great number of ideas to accumulate, so that new views come to light. The same zezpechu the versatility of the species on our planet.
Apparently before the appearance of Ch. Darwin, the main crushing forces of the Evolution are the decline, the minority (singular, which is group and unassigned, or indivisible) and the natural vision is the result of the struggle for the process of evolving, mindfulness.
Singing minlity - the value of a group of individuals of the same species for the incessant singing factors of the midst of the midst, which is of a prestosuval character (the loss of leaves by the dews for an hour on dry land, or by the deciduous dewlins of the mid-autumn belt). With the presence of a factor, like a wicked change, a change is given, as a rule, a change.
Minlity is unimportant - the tse of individual minlity is a sign of certain individuals to a species that does not have a predisposing character (albino creature, dwarf roslin). Such changes can be transmitted in recessions directly from the minds of the midst of the colony. To that, on Darwin's thought, the main meaning of the Evolution is small, not meaningful.
The polarity of the polarity is correlative in that, when one organ changes, or systems and organs, at once it changes one organ or structure. For example, the development of breast mucus and the formation of a keel in birds.
Compensation for the minority is rooted in the fact that the development of some organs or structures can be brought to the point of incompletely adjusted ones.
Already in 1860, the honoring of Darwin was accepted by the Bagatyokh Lands (T. Huxley, A. Wallace, J. Hooker in England, E. Gekkel, F. Müller in Nimechchin, K.A. Timiryazev, I. I. Mechnikov, A. O . і V.O.Kovalevski, I.M.Suchenov in Russia, A. Gray in the USA). The English zoologist Alfred Wallace is an independent representative of Ch. Darwin. Ch. Darwin highly appreciated the young scientist's ideas about natural goodness.
The main principle of the Evolutionary presentation of Ch. Darwin.
Skin type of building up to unbounded breeding.
The interconnection of life resources of the transition to the realization of the potential of interdependence of intercourse. There is a great part of the individuals of the guinea in the struggle for іnuvannya і do not inherit the offspring.
The bend, or the success of the struggle for the beginning, be of a vibrant character. Organisms of one type are derived from one type of sign. In nature, it is important to see and lick the offspring of those individuals, which may be the best in the distance for the minds of those who know it, that it is more beautiful to be attached.
The vibration of vision and reproduction of the most attached organisms Ch. Darwin called a natural species.
From a natural complement, which is seen in the minds of children, groups of individuals of the same species from generation to generation accumulate important signs. Groups of individuals make up the details of the suttas of vision, so that they can be reimagined in a new form (the principle of differentiation).
Ch. Darwin for the first time grounded the materialistic theory of Evolution. Winning the reality of evolving is a mind that is conceived, evolving and evolving. Darwin grounded the principle of uniformity of change in frequency and without interruption in the form, showing how unimportant the type of change from the other natural view is transformed into adaptive signs of the form. An understanding of the material causes of the manifestation and showing the form of a credible docility. The merit of Ch. Darwin in the field of science is not a style in the fact that it is due to the fact that it is due to the fact that it is due to the fact that it is possible to see it.
3.Antidarvinism
Antidarvinism (from the Greek. "Anti-" - against and darvinism), the group of navkans, in this very form, prohibit the role of natural choice in the evolution. Until the whole category, there are competing evolutive theories: Lamarckism, Saltationism, catastropheism, and more private criticism of the basic provisions of Darwinism. Do not follow the antidarvianism and the rejection of the evolution as a historical process (that is, the antievolution).
Historically, antidarvinism vinik is a critical reaction to the publication of Ch. Darwin's "Walking Views". Naybilsh last but not least logically listed in 1871 by summarizing Art. Mayvart in the article "About the vision of views":
Oscillations from the norms are small, the stench is not to blame for pouring on the immobility of individuals;
so, as we’ve gotten out of trouble, the odds of guilt will be compensated for in low generation;
It is important to explain the definition of foldable, integral structures, such as eyes or internal vuho, to accumulated and small visions.
Besides, for the sake of Darwin, in the nature of the fault, there are widely represented transitional forms, so that more taxa appear among the taxa, especially in paleontological material. At the same time, I respect the beasts, and Darwin himself in the coming visions of his robot, protest not being reasonably explained. Throughout the other half of the 19th century, there have been victories of competing evolutions, such as neolamarkism and neocatastrophism.
Until the earliest 20 centuries, the number, often popular, robots of mechanics and markers demonstrated the ability to "adequately minlity and keep up with the familiarity." The first robots of geneticists (H. de Vries. Betson) in practice brought the streak-like, rapt-like nature of the diagnosis of sedated changes, and not the actions of accumulated changes in response to the selection (so-called genetic antidarvism). Nareshty, the most robust, experimentally bring the "ineffectiveness" of natural species. So, in 1903, V. Johannsen, having carried out the vidbir in pure lines of kvassol, divided the mixture after the size into three groups: great, middle and others. Vin viyaviv, that in the offspring of the skin group, a new spectrum of growths is created, identical to that of Batkiv. The result of the obvious is that the result is obvious - it’s not the sign itself, but the norm of the reaction. However, on the cob of 20 centuries, some robots have sprung up as a result of the principle of natural selection. The furnishings were zoomed to the TV stars. crisis for darwinism, for "agnostic period at the development of the evolving day", which is trivial until the 30s of the 20th century. Natural solutions to the crisis have become the synthesis of genetics and the population's approach, as well as the development of the synthetic theory of evolution
4. Fundamentals of genetics
The main spadkova information is stored in specific cells of the cell nucleus of eukaryotes, which are changed by chromosomes. A chromosome is a complex that is composed of one giant molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and non-protein molecules. DNA is a whole polymer, so that it can be composed of a large number of one last monomer - nucleotides. Check for adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C) nucleotides. A DNA molecule is a two polynucleotide lancer, twisted into a sub-spiral. In order for the double-sided DNA molecule to be stable, it is necessary that the nucleotide A is located in one lancer, in the prototype lancet there is a nucleotide T, і navpaki. The same is true and the number of nucleotides is G and C. The process is summed up by the power of nucleotides, called complementarity. In such a rank, the sequence of nucleotides in one lancer will increase the value of the sequence of nucleotides in another lancet.
Nucleotides A, T, G і C by a free alphabet, behind the addition of which in DNA molecules all decay information is encoded. A gene is a chromosome distribution, which provides information about the power of an organism. (Dane vznachennya є we will forgive in the edge, but altogether suitable for the forgiven Wiklade). The skin chromosome is composed of codings, such as genes, and does not codify afterwords.
In the nuclei of human somatic cells, there are normally 46 chromosomes: 44 autosomes and 2 statues of chromosomes.
Autosomes are guys, so that 44 autosomes can be split on 22 bets of homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are identical in structure, to carry genes, to avenge information about some and quiet powers of the body. However, the sequence of nucleotides, as in the code, and in the non-code numbers of homologous chromosomes can be seen. The sequence of nucleotides, which are found in the same and the same place (loci) on homologous chromosomes, may be a different nucleotide warehouse, called 
are alleles. If Ludina is identical to alele at any locus, then she is called homozygous at this locus. Locusi grow strongly over a number of obvious alleles. There are a large number of loci, up to two alleles, however, there are so-called high-polymorphic loci, the number of alleles in those becomes ten or more. The number of alleles of a given individual from a certain locus or a group of locus is called a genotype. The number of allelic variants of loci that lie on the same chromosome is called a haplotype. The process of assigning a genotype or a haplotype to an individual, or a locus or a group of loci, is called a type.
There are two types of state chromosomes - X and Y, they are strongly recognized between themselves as for size, so they are stored in genes. The change of state chromosomes in the nuclei of human cells is found in the following status: in females, in norm, two X chromosomes, in choloviks - one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.
The set of chromosomes, which reveals 22 bets of autosomes and two states of chromosomes, is called a diploid set.
Transmission of drop-off information is displayed when there is a clinging problem. There are two types of cell disease - mitosis and meiosis.
As a result of mitosis, one mother's cell lasts for two daughters. At the singing stage, the mitosis of the chromosomes of the mother's cell will fight, and the skin daughter of the cell will eliminate the increased diploid set of chromosomes. The type of mitosis is followed by the growth of somatic cells.
In case of stem cell clitin (egg clitin in females, spermatozoa in cholovikiv), a cell type is observed in the singing stage, according to the type of meiosis. In case of meiosis, two acts occur. Before the hour of the first stage of meiosis, a subset of chromosomes occurs, however, two sister chromatids do not disperse, but are lost at once, being brought into a singing delay, called a centromere. At the singing phase of the first subtype of meiosis, conjugation occurs, so that one of the sister chromatids is bonded with one of the chromatids of the homologous chromosome. At the same time, recombination takes place, as it is an exchange of dilenks and evil chromatids of homologous chromosomes. Slid respect, that in choloviks, cells of which carry one X- and one Y-chromosome, conjugation between the state chromosomes is carried on an even smaller scale. In females, two X-chromosomes conjugate and recombine in the same way as autosomes. As a result of the first subtype of meiosis, two daughter cells are established, which revenge on one of the skin bets of homologous chromosomes. It means that the distribution of homologous chromosomes in the daughter cells is a kind of process, so that the transfer of the chromosomes behind them, in which cells to appear, is unfortunate. In case of another subtype of meiosis, subtypes of sister chromatids appear, the skin of which is consumed in the daughter's daughter. Thus, as a result of meiosis from one cell, which carries 46 chromosomes, a chotiri state of cells is established, which has 23 skin chromosomes (22 autosomes and one chromosome), so that half of the genetic material is supposed to be found in somatic cells. Such a set of chromosomes is called a haploid set.
Remarkably, all the eggs of a woman carry one X chromosome, at that hour one half of the spermatozoa of a person carry an X chromosome, and half of the spermatozoa carry a Y chromosome.
In case of delayed sperm and egg nuclei, anger is observed, as a result of which the nucleus of the established zygote will reject an increased diploid set of chromosomes. If the egg cell is filled with spermatozoa, the X chromosome is located in the nucleus, then from the zygote, in the norm, the fruit of the female stati develops. Once the ovum is delayed by spermatozoa that carry the Y chromosome, the fetus will become cholovic.
From the above said, one half of the chromosomes, which is located in the nuclei of somatic cells of the skin people, is taken from him as a biological mother, and half of the chromosomes are from a biological father. During the period of recombination, when at the first stage of meiosis, the chromosomes of the child are not exactly copies of the chromosomes of the skin's father, but are a kind of chimeras.
The core of the DNA nucleus is to be found in mitochondria - cell organelles that have grown in the cytoplasm and in the cells' own energy stations. Mitochondrial DNA is randomly small (~ 16.5 thousand nucleotide pairs), closed in a ring, a molecule. One mitochondria in the middle will replace 4-5 identical copies of such molecules. There are hundreds of mitochondria in a cell of a bottle, then there are a number of molecules of mitochondrial DNA per cell can be reached, for example, in eggs, about a thousand, the average number of people in the area is 500. Important people spermatozoa mitochondria do not penetrate into ovum. This means that only mitochondria (and apparently mitochondrial DNA) of the mother's ovum should be replaced in the case of delayed zygotes. The number of allelic variants of the mitochondrial DNA molecule is called mitotype.
5. Synthetic theory of Evolution
Synthetic theory of Evolution - modern Darwinism - winnickle on the cob of the 40s of the XX century. Vona is a statement about the evolution of organic light, broken up on the basis of the data of modern genetics, ecology and classic Darwinism. The term is “synthetic” and name of the book by the famous English evolu- tionist J. Huxley “Evolution: a modern synthesis” (1942). The development of the synthetic theory of evolution was greatly contributed by many people.
By translating Mendel's laws, proving the discrete nature of decay and especially by the roots of theoretical population genetics by R. Fisher (1918-1930), J. B. S. Haldane, Jr. (1924,), S. Wright (1931; 1932), Darwin’s opinion has an amazing genetic foundation. Even though theorists were talking about the frequency of the natural mutation process, the German geneticist Roslin E. Baur in 1924 showed on that left side the abundance of natural populations of Malimi, overwhelmingly physiological mutations.
S. S. Chetverikov on the basis of the genetics of natural populations, Vin was not only a geneticist, but rather a zoologist, who allowed him to discuss the problems of the species and the solution from the genetic point of view. That is why the evolutionary synthesis of yak bi into the germ is already known in the article by Chetverikov "About the actions of the evolutionary process from the point of view of modern genetics" (1926). The article of Chetverikova laid down a specific program of geneticists for those who are illіdzhen, as a bullet was realized by talented scholars. N.V. ta Є. A. Timofeva-Resovskiy "brought" four ideas to Europe, and F. G. Dobrzhanskiy - a student of the Leningrad geneticist-evolutionist Yu. In such a rank, rich in fundamental ideas of the maybut synthetic theory of evolution bully vivezen in Russia.
An important change in the mind for the denunciation of the new theory of evolution was the book of the English genetics, mathematicians and biochimics JBS Haldane, Jr., Yaky Vidav її in 1932 under the title "The causes of evolution". Russian translation of 1935 to the fate of the viconano with the speedy and not depicting the author's ideas.
Haldane, involved the genetics of individual development, simultaneously including the new science in solving the problems of macroevolution. Great evolutive innovations are often recognized on the basis of neoteny (preserving juvenile signs from a mature organism). Neotenia Haldane, explaining the way people (goals mavp), the evolution of such great taxons, such as ammonoids, graptolithies of foraminifera. Chetverikov's teacher N.K.Koltsov showed in 1933 that neotenia in the creation of light is widely expanded and has an extremely important role in progressive evolution. The lack of a sense of morphological simplification, but with a large amount of the richness of the genotype.
In the 1930s-40s, a wide synthesis of genetics and darvinism was developed. Genetic ideas have penetrated into taxonomy, paleontology, dialectology, biogeography. The term "Suchasny" or "Evolutionary synthesis" resembles the title of J. Huxley's book "Evolution: The Modern synthesis" (1942). Viraz "synthetic theory of evolution" in the exact complement to the given theory for the first time bulo vikoristano J. Simpson in 1949.
In the American literature, the names of F. Dobrzhansky, J. Huxley, E. Myr, J. Simpson, B. Rensch, J. Stebbins are most often named among the creators of the STE. Tse, zychayno, is not an extra list. Tilki from the Russian vchenikh, shonaimenshe, slid bulo b nazvati, A. N. Severtsova, I. І. Shmalhausen, N.V. Timofeva-Resovskiy, G.F. Gauze. P. Dubinina L. Takhtadzhyana, E. I. Lukina. From the British in the great role of JBS Haldane Jr., D. Leck, K. Waddington, G. de Beer. Nimetsky historians (W. Reif, Th. Junker, U. Hosfeld) among the active creators of the STE name the names of E. Baur, V. Zimmerman, V. Lyudvig, G. Heberer and іn.
The authors of the synthetic theory dispersed in their thoughts because of the low fundamental problems and were applied in different areas of biology, albeit the stinks were practically one-step in the interpretation of such basic provisions: the local population is an elementary one of the Evolution; material for evolution є mutation and recombination minlity; natural appearance is the main reason for the development of adaptations, modification and walking of overspecific taxa; drift of genіv і the principle of the master is the reasons for the formation of neutral signs; type є system of populations, reproductively isolated from populations of other species, and skin type ecologically related (one species - one nish); the type of polyagus in the diagnosis of genetic isolation mechanisms and it is important to think about geographic isolation; Visnovka about the causes of macroevolution (similarity of overspecies taxons) can be rejected for the development of microevolution, prompted on the basis of precise experimental data, Polish warnings and theoretical deductions. All in all, it is obvious that "Synthesis" is not a metaphysical construct without reinforcement between. Shvidshe tse bula reading of the science program, which is in the capacity of organizer of specific doslіdzhen.
The activity of the American creators of the STE was tied to the ceiling, but the stench was quickly blown up by the international partnership for the creation of the Evolution, as in 1946 it became the patron of the magazine "Evolution". The magazine "American Naturalist" has once again turned to the publication of robots with evolutive themes, shy emphasis on the synthesis of genetics, experimental and polovy biology. As a result of the numerical and most popular predictions, the main provisions of the CTE passed not only successful revision, but were visually modified, supplemented with new ideas.
Practically in all the historical and scientific models of 1937, the names of the rock were called the STE - in the whole rotsi there was a book by the Russian-American geneticist and entomologist-systematist FG Dobrzhansky "Genetics and the Origin of Species". The success of the book of Dobrzhanskogo was made by the time that he became a naturalist and an experimental geneticist overnight. "Subway" special analysis of Dobrzhanskiy allowed the first one to throw a solid place from the tabor of experimental biologists to the tabor of naturalists ”(E. Mayr). Dobrzhansky was often called "Darwin's twentieth century". For the first time, it was formed by the best understanding about the "insulating mechanisms of the Evolution" - quiet reproductive bar'єri, as the gene pool of one species emerges from the gene pool of the other species. Dobrzhanskiy viv in a wide science of science napivzabute rivnyannya Hardi-Weinberg. Vіn also zaprovad in naturalistic material "S. Wright's effect", vazhayuchi, so Mikrogeograficheskaya rasi vinikayut from infusion of vaping changes of frequencies of genіv in small isolates, ie. Adaptive-neutral way.
In 1942, the Nimetsko-American ornithologist and zoogeography E. Mayr saw the book "Systematics and walking of species" (Russian translation: 1947), in which the concept of polytypic type and model of genetic-geographic nature was recently introduced. Mayr proponated the principle of the master, which was in the residual form of the book of formulations in 1954. As the drift of the geni, as a rule, given a reason for the explanation of the formulation of neutral signs in the clock, the principle of the master is in the spacious (the model is vivid.)
With the publication of the prats of Dobrzhanskiy and Mayr, taxonomists rejected the genetic explanation of the fact that they had already been vilified for a long time: when they see them and are close to being spoken, they are developed according to adaptive-neutral signs. Joden from the STE cannot be matched with the guessed book of 1942r. English experimental biologist and naturalist J. Huxley. Pratsya Haxley, for a comprehensive analysis of the material and the breadth of the problematic, has turned over to the book of Darwin himself. Huxley stretching out the bagatokh rocky trim in mind all right in the development of the Evolutionary thought, respectfully pursuing the development of the sports sciences and mav special dosvid experimental geneticist. A prominent historian of biology, having assessed pratsyu Huxley: “Evolution. Fancy synthesis "was the most versatile in terms of the same documents, but also of robots on the whole topic. Books by Haldane and Dobrzhansky Boule were written by the head rank for geneticists, Mayr for taxonomists and Simpson for paleontologists. Huxley's book became the dominant force in the evolutionary synthesis. " (Beckoning)
Huxley's book is not small for the whole family (645 pages). Ale naytsіkavіshe polyagaє in that, all the main ideas, viclades in the bottom, boules are even clearly written by Huxley on the 20 sides. As early as 1936, if I sent the British Association for Science to the address: "Natural selection and evolutionary progress". In all aspects, the publication on the Evolutionary theory, which was published in the 1930s and 1940s, cannot be matched by Huxley's article. Kindly see the spirit of the hour, Huxley wrote: “At this hour, biology is in the phase of synthesis. Until the end of the day, new disciplines were practiced in isolation. The infection manifested itself in a tendency to unification, as it is more fruitful, less the old one-sided look at the evolution ”(Huxley, 1936, p.81). Even in the early 1920s, Huxley showed that he was not pessimistic about the calmness (Mayr and Rensch at the end of the Buli Lamarkisti); natural recovery as a factor of evolution and as a factor of stabilization of populations and species (evolutionary stasis); natural change in small and great mutations; geographic isolation - navazhivisha umova solution. Udavana meta in Evolution is explained by mutations and natural selection.
The main provisions of the Huxley statute of 1936 can be even briefly viklasta in the following form:
Mutations and natural changes are complementary processes, as they do not have a good solution to direct evolutionary changes.
Vidbir in natural populations is most often not on the outskirts of the geni, but on the gene complexes. Mutations cannot be crimson or shkidlivy, but the selective value of variyu in the middle of the middle. Mechanism of the development of the type of origin and genotypic middle, and the vector of the development of the phenotypic manifestation of mutations
Reproductive isolation is the main criterion, which indicates the completion of the solution. Options can be uninterrupted and linear, uninterrupted and versatile, slim and convergent.
Gradualism and panadaptation are not universal characteristics of the evolutionary process. The large number of terrestrial dewlines has the power to increase the frequency and growth of new species. Widely broadened and evolving gradual, and little insoluble - often and not always adaptive. Specific genetic mechanisms (hybridization, polyploidy, chromosomes and genome aberrations) are at the heart of the perverted formulation. View and overspecific taxons, as a rule, are developed according to adaptive-neutral signs. The head strains of the evolutionary process (progress, specialization) is a compromise between adaptability and neutrality.
In natural populations, the potential for adaptation of mutations is widely expanded. The whole type of mutation face will play a role in macroevolution, especially in the period of rapid mid-rage changes.
Onto- and phylogenesis. The concept of fluidity of the genie will explain the role of heterochronism and allometry to the evolutionary process. Synthesis of problems of genetics from the concept of recapitulation of the Veda to the clarification of the wide evolution of the species, which is in the dead ends of specialization. Through the neotenia, the "rejuvenation" of the taxon is introduced, and the new tempi of the evolution are added. The analysis of the development of the ontogenesis and phylogenesis gives the possibility of evolving the genetic mechanisms of the direct evolution of the evolution.
In the process of progressive evolution, the organization has been introduced to the library. The main result of the Evolution is the emergence of people. There is a great biological evolution in the winners of the people, it grows into psycho-social. Evolutionary theory to be included in the number of sciences, as vivchayut the formation and development of the human suspension.
A wide synthesis of data on anatomical anatomy, embryology, biogeography, paleontology with the principles of genetics of research studies in the works of I. І. Schmalhausen (1939), A. L. Takhtadzhyan (1943), J. Simpson (1944), B. Rensch (1947). The theory of macroevolution has matured for three years. Only the book of Simpson Bul is published in English and in the period of the widespread expansion of American biology, most often there is one guess in the middle of the main works. І. І. Schmalhausen will learn A. N. Severtsov. However, already in the 20-th rocky there was a new independent way. Win vivchav kіlkіsnі regularities of growth, genetics will show signs, genetics itself. One of the first Schmalhausen was the synthesis of genetics and Darwinism. The majestic decline of I. І. Schmalhausen is especially seen in his monograph "Hoes and the laws of the evolutionary process" (1939). Forward in the history of science, he formulated the principle of one mechanism of micro- and macroevolution. This is not just postulating, but directly directing the theory of a stable view, which includes population-genetic and macroevolutionary components (autonomic ontogenesis) in the course of progressive evolution. A. L. Takhdadzhyan in his monographic statistics: "Social development of ontogenesis and phylogenesis in tree growing" (1943) did not only actively include botany in the orbit of evolutionary synthesis, but actually stimulated the original model of macroeconomic growth. Takhtadzhyan's model on botanical materials developed a lot of miracles ideas of A. N. Severtsov, especially the theory of arhallaxis (a rapture to the organ at the very early stages of its morphogenesis, so that it can lead to adult snakes throughout the course of the development). Naivazhcha is the problem of macroevolution - the difference between great taxa, explained by Takhtadzhyan to the roll of neoteny in his activities. Non-sentiment of an important role in the travel of various taxonomic groups, including those of a small group. Herbaceous roslini walk through the village paths of long-tiered neoteny
The ecology of populations and sports products has gone into the evolutionary theory of the principle of the synthesis of the Gauze law and the genetic-geographical model of the solution. The reproductive isolation of the bull is supplemented with an ecological niche in the quality of the most important criterion for the species. With a whole niche appearance, it appears to be more natural, not purely genetic, as it is stagnant before it appears, as it does not disturb the state process.
The entry of ecology into the evolutionary synthesis was the conclusion of the stage of the formulation of the theory. At the same time, there is a period of validation of CTE in the practice of taxonomy, genetics, breeding, which is trivial to the development of molecular biology and biochemical genetics.
But we may have found the outside of molecular genetics in the theory of evolution of genes for regulatory and structural (model of R. Britten and E. Devidson 1971). The very regulatory genes control the determination of reproductive and isolation mechanisms and high speed of the formation of new forms. Those who are geni-regulators, mabut, fluctuate right away from the low genes and the quick changes (on the scale of the geological hour) on the morphological and physiological studies, It has become one of the reasons for the wide development of ideas in the spirit of "solid" Saltationism. At the same hour, STE supporters (F. Dobrzhanskiy, E. Mayr, A. L. Takhadzhyan, F. Ayala) interpreted the tsi dans in the framework of the STE ideas. Zokrema boulo shows the formation of reproductive іzoluyuchih Mesa. Alle the development of new sciences has not yet given rise to the concept of evolution, as the world could not only replace it, but compete with the synthetic theory.
The main provisions of the synthetic theory of evolution in wild rice you can viraziti with this rank:
The material for the Evolution is to serve as a fallout of change - mutations (as a rule, gennі) and їх combinations.
The main ruinous factor of the Evolution is natural goodness, which is based on the struggle for knowledge.
Naymenshuyu oddity of the Evolution є Population.
Evolution is mostly divergent in nature, that is, one taxon can become the ancestor of decile daughter taxons.
Evolution is trivial in nature. The type of solution as a stage of the evolutionary process is the last change of the one-hour population of the low onset of the hour-long population.
The type of storage is from non-isolated supiddlers, morphologically, physiologically, ecologically, biochemically and genetically determined, but reproductively, not isolated ones - from species and populations.
The view is clear and complete and closed. The nature of the species is adopted by migrations of individuals from the same population to the nation, when there is a tendency to exchange alleles ("potik geniv"),
Macroevolution for a higher level, lower type (kind, family, zagin, class and in.), Ide path of microevolution. It is a well-known synthetic theory of evolution, not real laws of macroevolution, of the kind of microevolution. In other words, for the evolution of groups of species of living organisms, they are also characterized by a change of mind and destruction of strength, as well as for a micro-revolution.
Be-like real (and not zbirny) taxon can be monophyletic.
Evolution is a non-directional character, that is. E. Do not go directly to be a kind of Kintsevoy.
The synthetic theory of evolution has opened up the mechanisms of the evolutionary process, has accumulated powerless new facts and proofs of the evolution of living organisms, shared the data of biological sciences. Protest synthetic theory of Evolution (aka neo-Darwinism) is found in the mainstream of quiet ideas and direct, like boules laid by Ch. Darwin.
Most of them are infected with the viraz "modern evolutive theory". With such a name, there is no need for any one concept of macroevolution, suvoro viplivia from microvolutionary events. To the head of the successes of the modern evolutionary theory є such a glance at the evolution, with a gradual change, it can turn into saltation.
visnovok
Biological Evolution - the price of irreversible and before the singing world is not a historical development of living nature, which is supervised by the change of the genetic makeup of populations, formed by adaptations, illuminated by the life of the early species, and improved In other words, from the biological evolutionary process of consciousness, the process of the presumed historical development of living forms on all the stages of the organization of the living.
At the same time, when the history of the development of science is growing, the problem of rational reconstruction of the historical development, connected with the rise of our minds, was raised in the last days of the last few years. For the next hour, the cumulative model of the development of science, so that the victories of knowledge in the history of development, for the sake of criticism, in the framework of knowledge for the development of science, for It will remain an hour of wide expansion of the concept of a revolutionary change of fundamental programs of education, and at the same time, for all, there will be historical types of rationalism. In order to achieve the stage of the development of an idea of development in biology from the antiquity to our days, it is necessary to carry out a rational reconstruction, from one side, and at the same time to achieve the vision of the type of economic development.
Biological Evolution itself in Danish hour is a scientifically established fact, in which there is no way of knowing in the past. Unimportant at the end, and in the Danish hour, there is a super-spike, as well as the prodigality of young biological species, as well as life itself on Earth.
Even more enthusiastic about the prodigious life of the ancient philosophers. It is especially vivid in the sense of one of the first philosophers of physics - Anaximander with his genial knowledge about the birth of life in the water and the relocation of living things to land. The great systematizer of ancient biological knowledge is Bouv and Aristotle.
In the middle of the panuvala the theory of creationism, for which everything was created by the essence. From that moment, since Christianity overcame on the Entry, the acceptance of the authority of the Bible without any guards, by the hand of all the galleys in all independent and independent thought and education in the field of Evolutionaryism. The pre-Victorian genesis included the ability to transition to one form of life in the world. The skinny look of the beetles of the stitches of one's own act of creation, and in Danish hour one can see only those forms of life, as the creators of the New Ark went through the water to the flood.
Everything changed with the arrival of the so-called New Hour: the founders of the technical revolution and education should obey the burgeoning development of biology. At the XVIII century, before the panіvnaya theory of life, they gave the theory of the invisibility of the great Karl Linnaeus, from the same growth and creatures, stemmed by God, shvid for everything before the stem of the people, I go through such darkness, , which is one of the first in the open-ended form of viclav the concept of transformism, to be surrounded by the diminutiveness of the species and the walking of the species at the boundaries of the generally vigorous pidrozdiliv (as one single ancestor) in the middle of the middle.
The 19th century was characterized by a boisterous development of biological thought: the theory of catastrophe of Kuv'є, the uniformitarianism of Laeyel, the great successor of Darwin Lamarck, having drawn the theory about the infusion of the calling middle-class, and Darwin himself
The death of Darwin was seen in the first place, quite self-directed, skinny in its own way, it improved and improved its look.
XX century marked the beginning of the synthetic theory and the transition to the population concept of the Evolution. New theory є system theory Nobel laureate Prigogine, it’s important that the development of any biological system is tied to the evolution of systems of a higher rank, in which it is included in the quality of the element, at the same time the view of the organisms "from the top to the bottom" to the etc.
List of Victory Literature
Agapova O.V., Agapov V.I. Lectures on the concepts of modern natural science. University course. - Ryazan, 2000 .-- 304.
Vorontsov N.N. Development of Evolutionary Ideas in Biology. - M .: Vidavnistvo. eddil UC DO MSU, Progress-Tradition, ABF, 1999 .-- 640.
Grodnitsky D.L. Two theories of biological evolution. - Saratov: Vidavnistvo "Science book", 2001. - 160.
Sadokhin A.P. Concepts of modern natural science: a handler for university students who are looking for humanitarian specialties and specialties of economy and management / A.P. Sadokhin. - 2nd ed., Revised. і add. - M .: UNITY-DANA, 2006 .-- 447.
Yablokov A.V., Yusufov A.G. Evolution vchennya. Textbook. posibnik for stud. un-tov. - M., Vischa school, 1976 .-- 331.
Resources of the global stockInternet
Biological picture to light. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://nrc.edu.ru/est/r4/5.html, vilny.
History of genetics. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://www.po4emu.ru/drugoe/history/index/raznoe/stat_raznoe/177.htm, Vilny.
History of development of the Evolutionary theory. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://www.rsu.edu.ru/~zoo/r1g1.html, vilny.
Yordansky M.M. Evolution of life. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://p16q48.firstvds.ru/evzhcont.htm, vilny.
Makev A.V. Osnovy biologii 1996 і 1997. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://newlibrary.ru/download/makeev_a_v_/osnovy_biologii.html, Vilny.
Science site about DNA. Fundamentals of Genetics. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://www.aboutdna.ru/p/85, vilny.
Svitu svitu abo the theory of Evolution. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://creation.xpictoc.com/?page_id=2#awp::?page_id=2, valid.
Catastrophe theory Cuv'є. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://www.airmed.com.ua/forum/index.php?showtopic=3267, vilny.
Evolution of the Earth. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://evolution.powernet.ru/history, vilny.
Evolution vchennya. [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://ru.wikwpedia.org/wiki, vilny.
Cyril's encyclopedia and Methodia [Electronic resource]: Access mode: http://www.megabook.ru/Article.asp?AID=689217, Vilny.
The trivial era of the Great Ones geographic views before the Europeans a new, unassailable expanse. In 1606 the Dutch seafarers beat Australia for the first time. At 1741 r V. Bering dossyag shores of Alaska. Around the world expeditions of the other half Xviii v. Mali, in its inheritance, expanded not only geographic horizons, but also biological knowledge about the land of Russia and the traditional world of new lands. The hour of systematization of knowledge has come.
We spry the nature as if it were the same, and we pushed back the versatility of the organisms and set up a connection between them. Until the end XVII v. it became obvious that it would be difficult to describe organisms without the establishment of the hierarchical system and the establishment of native groups among groups, historical development of organic light.
The elements of the idea are to be found in the works of ancient Greek philosophers - from Thales to Aristotle. Bagato philosophies and naturalness of the era of the Renaissance and the New Hour were catching a thought about the interconnection of the forms of living nature. Thus, the Nimetsian philosopher G. Leibnits (1646-1716 r. Swiss naturalist Sh. Bonny (1720-1793 r. J. Buffon (1707-1788 rr.) Visunuvuvuvuvuyu hypothesis about the development of the Earth (1748). Having grown up the "natural history" of the Earth for seven periods, letting in the growth of the line, then the creature, and then people appeared in the last period of the development of the planet. Buffon, admitting the same, that one form can be re-created in the first place in a flowing climate, for the minds of the beginning and “without interruption the hierarchy from the lowest growing line to the most highly organized creature”.
A majestic pouring in on the formation of the Evolutionary ideas in the last few generations, the principle systematics of organic light, how to destroy the Swedish license and naturalist Karl Linney (Carolus Linnaeus, 1707 - 1778 rr.) - the first secretary of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, created in 1739 by the famous pratsi "Systema naturae" ("Systema naturae", 1735), 12 times seeing for the life of the author, they were for the first time proponated the foundations of the classification of the kingdom of nature "(Roslin, Tvarin and Mineral). The skin from the kingdoms of wine is divided into classes, corrals, canopies, see and see; for all organic species in the obov'yazkovu binarn (subline) nomenclature, in which
The Torah species was named by two names - generic and vidim. Linney vpershe vіdnіs people (rіd Homo) up to the class of ssavts (a number of primates), which at that hour was vimagal with a sufficient amount of boldness. Apparently, Linney is not aware of the inviolability of nature and socialism.
K. Linney is a member of the Academy of Sciences of Nimechchini (1754), Switzerland (1739), Great Britain (1753), Russia (1754), France (1762). Tse witness about this majesty flowing into the development of natural science. Pratsi Linney took the form of ideas by J. Cuvier, J. Lamarck and Ch. Darwin.
French zoologist Georges Cuve'є (George Cuvier, 1769-1832 pp.) Having broken the understanding about the tipi in zoology, and for the first time united into one type of ridge classes of ssavts, ptahs, amphibians and ribs. Winning the fundamentals of paleontology and anatomical anatomy, and by ourselves, we have developed the foundation for the future evolution of the theory. get busy pedagogical robot, Vin opened the Faculty of Natural Sciences at the Paris University.
Jean Lamarck(Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet Lamarck, pp. 1744-1829) - French naturalist, scholar and herald of French materials and educators of the 18th century. - having formulated pershu the theory of evolutionary development of living things. The main provisions of Lamarck's natural philosophical concept of the Vicladenia in his works "Natural History of Roslin" (1803) and "Philosophic Zoologique" ("Philosophic zoologique", 1809). Take care of the anatomical anatomy of spineless ones, win the first portions of the creatures on the spineless and spineless ones and the witness.
Lamarck is stverdzhuvav, scho among the types of creatures of nemay sharp edges; see not є last, - the stench wavering in the inflow of the midst of the colossus, puffing up new authorities, and calming down the signs. In such a rank, Lamarck vvvazhav, which signs, how to win adequately bureaucrats, how to infuse dovkillya, are transferred to recessions. The main factor in the adaptation of wines to the right is the lack of exercise of organs, as well as the establishment of new organs. Winning against the concept of preformism (div. P. 347), it is possible that “if we live, we see one of them”, and develop when not from “preexisting germs”.
Aleksandr Lamarck's theory is based on a set of idealistic conditions. So, vin vvazhav, how progress in the development of organisms will be explained to the internal "pragmatists" to self-determination. Yogo vchenya zgodom got into shape Lamarckism- the philosophical concept of the other half of the 19th century, which became the death of Lamarck as an antithesis to Darwinism. Tse, however, did not apply the historical merits of Lamarck himself, for having proponated the first integral theory of Evolution. One of the most important biologists of the world, the founder of the Evolutionary Day is Charles Darwin.
Charles Darwin(Charles Robert Darwin, pp. 1809-1882) Having filled up the majestic decline of science, there were 8000 directions. Yogo basic practice "Walking in the path of natural views, for the protection of future generations in the struggle for life" (1868 r), "Walking of the People and Articles of the Widbir" (1871) and the first evolution of the new ideas.
The end of the Cambrian University Ch. Darwin took part in the round-the-world journey on the ships "Bigl" (1831 - 1836). In a stretch of 20 years, we collected and analyzed the materials, experimented and systematized. Primed on the majestic factual material, wines have arrived before being reconstructed, so that creatures and growths appear on Earth as a result of the evolution. The main factors of the evolution of Darwin smallness, declineі natural vidbir in the minds of "fighting for insight" (the witness, introduced by Darwin).
Prior to the idea of natural vision, Darwin arrived through the knowledge of the policy of his teacher Adam Smit (1776), who wrote about the success in the suspension, fighting for the struggle against the individual result of the struggle. In such a rank, Darwin gave the natural-scientific basis for the determination of the priestly signs, in opposition to the declarations about the cob prestige of the present light.
F. Engels naming Darwin's theory among the three main natural sciences vidkritiv XIX v. In 1859, in a leaf before K. Marx, he wrote: "... until now, there has not been a grandiose attempt to bring the historical development in nature, and even so with such success" 1.
Charles Darwin has been honored doctor of Cambridge, Bonn, Breslav and Leiden Universities, Corresponding Member of the Petersburg (1867) and Berlinsky (1878) Academies of Sciences.
Theory of natural selection of the development of numerical adversaries and opponents. In the mid-1860s, the era of the Evolutionary Pidhid began to be adopted in morphology, embryology, paleontology; The first experimental preliminaries of the Evolution appeared. Pidsumkom of the complex of rich-faceted robots among rіznih lands it became a success synthetic theory of evolution(CTE). We are principled to cut the principle of the theory є the declaration of natural goodness in order to destroy the power of the Evolution and the population. The foundations of STE were laid by the writers of FG Dobrzhansky "Genetics and walking of species" (1937), J. Huxley "Evolution. Fortunate synthesis "(1942 r), E. Mayer" Systematics and walking of species "(1942 r), as well as N.V. Timofeeva-Resovskiy (according to the radio transmission in the genes, 1935) and other ...
Vchennya Darvina brought a new historical background to the development of the laws of living nature and gave rise to the development of all biological sciences.
The evolution of the organic light of the Earth is uneasily tied to the evolution of the lithosphere. The history of development of the lithosphere of the Earth has grown into geological regions: Katarchean, Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic. The skin era lasts for the period and era. Geological epochs, periods and epochs see the development of life on Earth.
Gadeyskiy Eon, Archean and Proterozoic get together in cryptose- "to the era of the prikhovanny life." Cryptozoic grids are represented by only small fragments, do not expect identification. Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic are united in phanerozoic- "the era of obvious life." The phanerozoic ear is characterized by the appearance of skeletal creatures, which are good for the wykopny camp: foraminifera, shells of molluscs, ancient arthropods.
Early stage of development of organic light
In the minds of a surplus of ready-made organic speeches of heterotrophic (saprotrophic) methods of harvesting є first. B about A large part of the archebionts is specialized for itself on heterotrophic saprotrophic harvest... They form folding enzyme systems. Tse called for the improvement of genetic information, the appearance of a nuclear envelope, flexible internal membranes and organoids in the ruch. Some of the heterotrophs see the transition to saprotrophic grabbing before holozoic... There are also gistoni, which made it possible for the appearance of reference chromosomes and perfect methods for the subtype of cellini: mitosis and meiosis. In such a rank, prokaryotic type of organizatsiya clitin before eukaryotic.
The Іnsha part of the archebionts is special for autotrophic living... Found in the newest way of autotrophic food є chemosynthesis... On the basis of enzyme-transport systems for the chemosynthesis of vinicaє photosynthesis- the prevalence of communication processes based on light energy for additional developmental photosynthetic pigments (bacteriochlorophyll, chlorophyll a, b, c, d that іnshih). A surplus of carbohydrates, which is established during the fixation of CO 2, allowing the synthesis of polyaccharides.
All the signs of heterotrophs and autotrophs, great aromorphoses.
Jmovirno, at the early stages of the evolution of the organic light of the Earth, there is a wide expansion of the exchange of genes between absolutely different organisms (transferred by the gene in the path of transduction, multi-species hybridization and intraocular symbiosis). In the course of the synthesis of the power of heterotrophic and photoautotrophic organisms, they were united in one cell. Tse called up to the formation of new types of algae - the first spruce grows.
The main stages of the Roslin Evolution
Hydroelectricity is a numerically diverse group of primordial water photoautotrophic organisms. In the vicopian stania, the water growth is more from the Precambrian (up to 570 million rockets), and in the Proterozoic and the cob by the Mesozoic, all ninety forms of evidence were also eliminated. Joden from the occasional species of algae cannot be respected by the ancestor of the one happy character evolution of algae.
In kintsi siluru (≈ 400 million rocky volume) vishchі(Land) roslini.
In the Silurian sea, the ocean and the water definition have been added. Ceremonies for the settlement of littoral and supralitoral ( literal- a part of the coast, where it is flooded before the hour of flooding; the littoral of the loan between the water and the ground-based living environment; Supralitoral- a part of the coast vishche rіvnya flood, zvolozhuvana brizki; by day, Supralitoral є part of the terrestrial-food center of living).
Instead of sourness in the atmosphere, before the appearance of terrestrial dewlines, the boulots were significantly lower than the current ones: Proterozoic - 0.001 of the most common rivnya, Cambrian - 0.01, Silurian - 0.1. If there is a deficiency of sourness, a limiting factor in the atmosphere is ultraviolet. The journey of roslin to dry land is supervised by the development of the metabolism of phenolic spolucs (tannic species, flavonoids, anthocyanins), which take part in the healthy reactions, including ultraviolet diseases
The penetration of roslin on land is tied with the appearance of a number of aromorphoses:
1) The emergence of differentiated fabrics: crooked, conductive, mechanical, photosynthetic. The emergence of differentiated tissues is irregularly tied with the appearance of meristems and basic parenchyma.
2) The emergence of differentiated organs: in the course (to the organ of the carbonate grub) and the root (to the organ of mineral vitality).
3) There are bagatoclitinni gametangia: antheridia and archegonia.
4) There are hundreds of changes in the exchange of words.
ancestors vishykh roslin vvazhayutsya organizmi, podbnі up to uchasnykh harovykh with algae. Found in the house on the ground - kuksoniya. Cooksonia was discovered in 1937 (W. Lang) in the Silurian explorers of Scotland (nearly 415 million Rockies). Tsia roslina was a bush similar to water content, which is the essence of sporangia. It was attached to the substrate behind the aid of the rhizoids.
The presentation of the Evolution of Vishchikh roslin was distributed on two lines: gametophytic and sporophyte
Representatives of the gametophyte lineage are modern Mohoids. tse no court roslini, At some of the days, specialty wire and mechanical fabrics.
The insha line of the Evolution led to the appearance Sudden Roslin In some in the life cycle there are dominant sporophytes, and in all fabrics of food growers (education, pokrivnі, provіdnі, the main parenchyma and ії їідні). Manufacturers have appeared of all types of fabrics to differentiate between roslin and root and pagin. Found from the judges of the roslin є nini vimerli Rinievie(psilophy). With a stretch to the Devon, the happy groupies are molded spore roslin(Plivuni, Horsetail, Fern). However, their spore roslin vidsutnya nasinnya, I sporophyte develops from an undifferentiated embryo.
On the cob of the Mesozoic (≈ 220 million rocks) there are first holonasinny roslini, Yaki panuvali in the Mesozoic eri. Most aromorphoses of Holonasin:
1) Appear ovules; ovules develop female gametophyte (endosperm).
2) Appear saw grains; in most species of pilkov grain, when germinated, the pilkov tube is established, the cavernous gametophyte is established.
3) Appear nasinnya, Before the warehouse, which includes the differentiation of the embryo.
However, Holonaceous roslin have a number of primitive signs: seed buds rosted on the scales (megasporangiophores) into the crust,
pershi pokrytonasіnnі(quotations)roslini appeared, ymovirno, shche in the Jurassic period, and in the crady period, to fix it adaptive radio... In the Danish hour, Pokritonasinny is located in the camp of biological progress, which has a number of aromorphoses:
1) Appear queens- a closed carpel with ovules.
2) Appear otsvitini, Shcho it was possible to move to entomophilia (gash with coma).
3) Appear embryonic bearі sub-basement.
In the Danish hour Pokritonasinny presents the lifeless forms of life: trees, chagarniki, fallow trees, odnorichnі and bagatorіchnі grasses, water growth. Particularly versatile, within the reach of Budov's cards, for the accuracy of filing and without providing intensive solutions - up to 250 thousand species of roslin can be seen close to the darkest ones.
The main stages of the Evolution of Tvarin
European organisms, such as specializing on heterotrophic harvest, gave an ear creaturesі mushrooms.
All types of tips are found in the Proterozoic era Bagatoklitinny spineless creatures... There are two basic theory of the walking of the bagatoclitine creatures. Based on theory gastronomy(E. Gekkel), in a vivid way, the formation of a two-ball embryo і іnvagіnatsіya (invagination of the blastuli stem). Based on theory phagocytelli(І. І. Mechnikov), in a vicious way, the formation of a two-ball embryo є (moving around blastomeres into empty blastuli). It is possible, tsі two theories, to mutually supplement one one.
intestinal drainage- representatives of the most primitive (two-ball) large-scale clays: they are stored in all three spheres: ectoderm and entoderm. The level of tissue differentiation is even lower.
At the lower hrobaks ( flatі Round worms) The third germinal leaf is the mesoderm. There is a great aromorphosis, the origin of which is the differentiation of fabrics and systems of organs.
Instead of the evolutionary tree of creatures, it grows into primary and secondary thorns. Among the protostomes in many chrobakiv to pretend to be a second empty tila ( whole). There is a great aromorphosis, the zavdyaky how old can grow up in the house.
Most of the worms may be primitive (parapodia) and homogeneous (equally-valued) segmentation of the body. Ale on the cob is Cambrian arthropods, In some parapodia, it is transformed into the articulation of the kintzivka. In Arthropods, the segmentation of the tulub is heteronomous (unambiguous). They have a chitinous exoskeleton, such as the appearance of differentiated bundles of mutations. Pererakhovanі special features of Arthropods є aromorphoses.
Most primitive arthropods - trilobite-like- Panuwali in the Paleozoic seas. lucky Gillheads primordial-aquatic arthropods cancer-like... However, on the cob the Devonian (when the roslin goes to land and the form of terrestrial ecosystems) goes to the land pavukopodіbnykhі coma.
Pavukopodіbnі went to land, zavdyaky numerical allomorphoses (idioadaptations):
1) Impenetrability of curves for driving.
2) The loss of larval stages to development (for a vignette of clues, however, nymphs of clues in principle do not appear from mature animals).
3) Formation of a compact, weakly segmented body.
4) Formation of organs of behavior and vision, which provide new minds of living.
Comahs are most prone to life on land, great aromorphoses have appeared:
1) The appearance of the embryonic membranes - serous and amniotic.
2) The presence of krill.
3) The plasticity of the oral apparatus.
With the emergence of quilt roses in the cradle period, the spinal evolution of comas and quilts is repaired ( covolution), І they have formed special adaptations ( coadaptation). Near the Cenozoic region of Komakhi, yak and Kvitkovy roslini, is located in the center of biological progress.
Among the secondary vermin creatures of the most popular rosevita reach chordovy creatures Some of them have a number of great aromorphoses: the chord, the nerve tube, the cranial aorta (and then the heart).
Hordi's marching has not yet been precisely established. Seemingly, there are heavy vacuolized clitins in the lower spineless. For example, at the vіykovy hrobak Coelogynopora the intestinal gland, which grows over the nerve ganglia in the anterior end, folds into vacuolized cells, so in the middle of the veins an elastic shearing, which helps to cram into the soil. At the pivnіchnoamericansky wіykovy hrobak Nematoplana nigrocapitula Before the description of the anterior intestine, the entire dorsal side of the intestine is transformed into jgut, so that it can be stored in vacuolized cells. This organ was called the chordaintestinalis. Possibly, directly from the vacuolization of the dorsal side of the intestine and the dorsal chord (chordadorsalis) of the entomesodermal approach.
from primitive chordal creatures in silurі vіdbuvayutsya persіs ridge(clickless). In spinal bones, an axial and visceral skeleton, spine, cerebral box and slit-like skulls form, as well as aromorphosis. lower Jaw-throated ridge presented by different ribs... The current class of ribs (Chryashov and Cystkov) are formed in the end of the Paleozoic - the cob by the Mesozoic).
A part of cyst ribs (Meat-and-blade ribs), two aromorphoses - legeneviy like and appearing spontaneous kintsivoks - gave a cob to the first chotirinohim–amphibians(amphibian). The first amphibians went ashore in the Devonian period, and the first amphibious attacks on the Kam'yanovugilny period (the number stegocephaly). Suchasnі Amphіbії are in the beginning of the Jurassic period.
In parallel, the middle of the Chotirinoids are organisms with embryonic membranes - amnioti... The emergence of embryonic membranes is a great aromorphosis, which first appears in reptile... The breeders are embryonic shells, as well as a number of other signs (keratinizing epithelium, basins of nirka, the appearance of measles of great spirits). The appearance of the first primitive reptiles - kotylosavriv- to be accepted until the end of the Kam'yanovugil period. The perm has various groups of reptiles: animal-toothed, primordial and іnshі. Turtles, plesiosaurs, ichthiosaurs are formed on the cob by the Mesozoic. Repair the development of reptiles.
From the groups, close to the first-lords, two groups of evolutive development emerge. One ear per ear with the Mesozoic gave an ear of a numerical group pseudo-aural... Pseudosuchs gave an ear to several groups: crocodiles, pterosaurs, ancestors of birds and dinosaurs, represented by two horns: lizardmen (brontosaurus, diplodocus) and ptakhotasov (only roslinoid species). Another bottle on the cob of a crazy period led to the appearance of a class luskatikh(Lizards, chameleons and snakes).
However, the Reptiles could not absorb the fallowness due to low temperatures: warm-bloodedness is not good for them due to the incomplete distribution of blood circulation. In the end of the Mesozoic in the wintry climate, there are many reptiles.
If a part of the pseudo-ear in the Jurassic period appears to have a septum between licks, the left arch of the aorta is reduced, the blood circulation becomes more diluted, and a young warm-bloodedness. Nadal the creatures added a number of adaptations to the benefit and gave the ear to the class birds.
In the Jurassic attachments of the Mesozoic era (≈ 150 million Rockets in that), the first appearance was revealed: Archeopteryx and Archeornis (three skeletons and one feather). Ymovіrno, tse bouli tree-climb creatures, as they could planuvati, but didn’t boil to active use. Even earlier (in the beginning of the trip, ≈ 225 million Rockets), having opened the prototype (two skeletons were discovered in 1986 in Texas). The skeleton of the prototype is often derived from the skeleton of reptiles, the great brain and the lobe of the boule in size. Two groups of vicarious birds were numbered in the crude period: іkhtіornіs and Hesperornіs. Suchasnі groups of birds are only on the ear of the Cenozoic era.
With a hundred aromorphosis in the evolution of birds, a chotiroh-chambered heart can appear in a single reduction of the left aortic arch. As a result of the distribution of arterial and venous blood, the development of the brain and the growth of the development of the exchange of words was growing. Rozkvit Ptakhiv in the Cenozoic series of dressings with low great idioadaptations (in the belt of the pir'yanny mantle, specialization of the support-rok apparatus, development of the nervous system, turbot about offspring and health, and the frequency of tins) ).
On the ear of the Mesozoic era, there are the first ssavts, Yakі winnіkli zavdyakov a whole series of aromorphoses: wіll thе forebrain іn thе cortex, four-chambered heart, reduction of the right aortic arch, reversal іdvіysk, square and articular lobes in the ear, The ancestors of Ssavtsyam bully are primitive Permian Plazuni, which took a number of signs of Amphibia (for example, bully good dear ones).
In the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic eri Ssavtsi boules are represented, as a minimum, five classes (Bagatogorbkozubi, Three-tuberculosis, Tricodonti, Simmetrodonti, pantoteria). One of the number of classes, ymovirno, giving an ear to the very first, and the last one - the sum of the placental. Placenta ssavtsi, placenta growers and spontaneous viviparity, in the Cenozoic region move to the camp of biological progress.
Placental corral є Comahoidnі. From the coma early edentulous, Gryzuni, Primati and Nini Vimerla, a group of creodons, primitive hijackas, came early. From the creodons, there were two gilks. One of the tsikh gilok gave an ear to the hijim, from which Pinnipeds and Whale-like ones came. Іnsha hіlka gave the ear to primitive hoarding (condilartr), and then unpaired, Parnokopitny and home pens.
The residual differentiation of the current groups of Ssavtsyam ended in the era of the great glaciers - in the Pleistocene. An anthropogenic factor is heavily infused into the current species warehouse of Ssavtsyam. In the historical hour of the boule of vinischeni: tour, steller's cow, tarpan and іnshі vidi.
In the Chinese Cenozoic region near the chastin primates vinikє is a special type of aromorphosis - the overdevelopment of measles in the great cerebral poultry. The result is an absolutely new type of organisms - Lyudina is rosumna.