Review of biology on the topic of genetics. History of development of genetics. Achievement and problems of current genetics
I want the history of genetics to reign in the 19th century, when old people started thinking about how creatures and growing trees convey their signs in a series of generations. In other words, it was obvious that in nature there is a sense of decline. At the same time, the signs can change. To be more of a decline in nature and a sense of lowliness. The slump and the tendency to relate to the main powers of living matter. The last hour (until the 19th-20th centuries), the real reason for the beginning of the day is from the people. There have been a number of hypotheses that can be divided into two types: direct sedation and indirect sedation.
henchmen direct support(Hippokrat, Lamarck, Darwin et al.) They allowed the daughter's body through singing substances (gemmules after Darwin) to be collected in state products, transmitted information to the skin organ and skin parts of the body. For Lamarck it was whispered, that the development of the organ would be passed on to the offensive generation without the help of it. hypotheses indirect seduction(Aristotle in the IV century BC. E., Weisman in the XIX century.) Stverdzhuvali, how the state of the product is established in the body of the environment and "do not know" about the changes in the organs of the body.
Anyone who was offended, hypotheses joked about the "substrate" of recession and minusculeness.
The history of genetics as a science was honored by the work of Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), who in the 60s provoked systematic and numerical control over peas, having established a number of regularities of decay, for the first time seeing the idea of organizing decaying matter. The correct vibration of the object of the message, the illusion of a sign, and also the science of luck allowed you to formulate three laws:
Mendel zrozum_v, scho spadkovy material is discrete, representations with the same inclinations, scho passed on to offspring. With a wide range of leather goods, it is responsible for the development of singing signs of organism. A sign of a couple of inclinations that came with statues from both fathers.
At that hour, Mendel's scientific opinion was not given a special meaning. Yogo zakoni bouli translate on the ear of the XX century decilcom roslinsі tvarin.
In the 80s of the 19th century, boules were characterized by mitosis and meiosis, in the course of some of the daughter cells chromosomes naturally occur. On the ear of the XX century T. Boveri and W. Setton came to visnovka, scho the decline in the number of authorities in a series of generations of organisms due to the decline in the number of chromosomes... Tobto until the end of the hour the scientific light of the zoos, in some structures there is a "substrate" of decay.
W. Betson Bouv Vidkritiy gamete purity law, And the science of slump and minlity for the first time in the history of the bull was called їm genetics... V. Johansen introduced to the science of the understanding (1909), genotype and phenotype... At that hour, it was already zoomed, scho a gene is an elementary decay factor... And yet, nature has never been seen as a cheeky one.
U 1906 rotsi bulo vidkrito geniv disease, including sedation of the mark, for the better... Understanding the genotype was fed up, but geni organism is not just a bunch of independent units of decay, the stench set up the system, in which there is a persistence of decay.
In parallel with the decrease in the rate of decrease, the appearance of the decrease in the rate of decrease was observed. In 1901, the roci de Friz boules laid the foundations for mutational minuscule, tied to changes in chromosomes, to produce signs of change. Crumbs of chimes have been found, which often come to light when the radio is injected, singing chemical words and in. By this rank, the bulo is brought, but chromosomes are not only a "substrate" of decay, but also minlity.
In 1910, rotsi, richly in the backbone of the early days, was broken up by T. Morgan's group chromosomal theory:
Genes are found in the chromosomes and are lined up there linearly.
The skin chromosome is homologous to the chromosome.
From the dermal patches on the plots, I will remove one of the skin homologous chromosomes.
Homologous chromosomes can replace the same set of genes, and alleles of genes can be different.
Geni, who are in the same chromosome, settle down spirally() For wash close roztashuvannya.
The middle of the ear of the 20th century Bula is revealed Poschromosomal, or cytoplasmic, decay, linked to mitochondria and chloroplasts.
A chemical analysis of chromosomes has shown how the stench is composed of nucleic acids. In the first half of the 20th century, many of them have gone to the point of thinking, but little by noses of slowness and minusculeness.
In the 40s of the XX century in the history of genetics, there is a streak. Until then, switch to molecular level.
In 1944, it began to emerge, after the fall, signs of the emergence of such a speech, Klitin yak. DNA is recognized by the nose of genetic information. Trochi pіznіche bulo is formed, scho one gene codeє one polypeptide.
In 1953 D. Watson and F. Creek deciphered the structure of DNA. Viyavilosya sho tse sub-spiral, which can be stored in nucleotides... They created a spacious model of the DNA molecule.
Piznіshe boules іdkritі such power (60-tі rock):
Skin amino acid polypeptide is encoded by codons(Three nitrogenous substitutions in DNA).
Skin amino acid code is one triplet or more.
Triplet do not curl up.
Reading to be repaired from the starting triplet.
DNA has no punctuation marks.
The 70s rock in the history of genetics has one more yakisny stribok - development genetic engineering... fix it synthesize geni, zminyuvati genome... Have an hour to actively vivchayutsya molecular mechanisms, which lie in the basis of the development of physiological processes.
Do the 90s rock sequencing genomes(To decipher the sequence of nucleotides in DNA) In 2003, the project for the sequencing of the human genome was completed. In the Danish hour genome bazi danih... There is also the possibility of a comprehensive development of physiological specialties, the incapacitation of people and other organisms, as well as the initiation of the homeland between species. Ostann allowed the systematics of living organisms to go to the new rivn.
Abstract on the topic: Genetics
JOIN
1. GENETICS OF STATI
1.1. Genetic mechanisms of the formulation of stati
1.2. Uspadkuvannya sign that is more important in the article
1.3. Uspadkuvannya signs, control over the past
1.4. Chromosomal decay theory
1.5. mechanism of heat
2. BIOTECHNOLOGIS I GENNA INZHENERIYA
2.1. biotechnology
2.2. Genna Engineering
VISNOVOK
List of vikoristanikh dzherel
JOIN
In my essay, I will look at such nutrition, like the laws of education, general engineering and biotechnology.
Genetics is one of the most progressive natural sciences. They have changed their nature and are rich in philosophical development of life. The role of genetics for the practice of selection and medicine is much greater. The significance of genetics for medicine will be the growth of dermal fate, for genetics will share some of the most important aspects of biology and physiology of people. The managers of genetics, її knowledge, are developing methods for treating a number of declining ailments, such as phenylketonuria, diabetics and іnshі. Here, the medico-genetic robot is poklikan to lie down the citizens of people from the defect genes, which are removed by them from the fathers. Introduce yourself into the practice of medical and genetic counseling and pre-mental diagnostics, allowing you to get ahead of the development of declining ailments.
1. GENETICS OF STATI
Gender is a sign, for which specific features of individuals are carried out, for example, based on morphological and physiological features, so that it is possible to work together in the process of statistic reproduction of combining in areas of declining deposits.
Morphological and physiological signs, for which specific types of individuals are carried out, are called statues.
Signs, tied to the form and function of the article's clines, are called the primary article marks. Tse gonads (yachniki abo nasinniki), їkh vivіdnі ducts, dodatkovі zalozi state apparatus, copulative organi. All of the signs, behind which one becomes recognizable as one, are called the second article signs. Prior to them, it is known: the nature of the hairline, the appearance and development of milky vines, the bud's skeleton, the type of development of the adipose fatty cells, the bud's tubular cysts and in.
1.1. Genetic mechanisms of the formulation of stati
The ear of the genotypic value of the stati was accounted for by American cytologists of the same genetics in the form of comas, and in the number of chromosomes in individuals of the different stati (McClang, 1906, Wilson, 1906). ... Vilson viyaviv, that in the bug Lydaeus turucus females may have 7 pairs of chromosomes, in males 6 pairs of the same chromosomes with the female, and in the same pair one chromosome is the same, as the chromosome of the female is shown, and the child is small.
A pair of chromosomes, such as in a male and a female, is called idio, or heterochromosome, or state chromosome. The female has two chromosomes of the same status, which is the Yak X chromosome, the male has one X chromosome, and the male has one Y chromosome. The chromosomes are the same in the male and in the female, the boules are called autosomes. In this rank, the chromosomal formula in the female of the named bug is 12A + XX, in the male 2A + XY. In a number of other organisms, they want, in principle, the same apparatus for assigning statuses, protest heterozygosity, which is obviously realizing statuses, not cholovic, but feminine organisms. Individuals of the human stati may have two identical statuses of the chromosome ZZ, and individuals of the female stati - ZO or ZW. ZZ-ZW type of statistic value is promoted in snowstorms, birds, ZZ-ZO - lizards, young birds.
This is the name of the mechanism of statisation, the titles of haploid, widespreads in bdzhil and murah. In cich organisms, there are no state chromosomes: females are diploid individuals, and males (drones) are haploid. Females develop from late eggs, and from early ones, drones develop.
Lyudin's status is assigned to type XX-XY. During gametogenesis, the type of Mendel's splitting behind the state chromosomes is observed. cutaneous ovum to replace one X chromosome, and half - one Y chromosome. The floor of the site should lie in order for the sperm to accumulate ovum. Sex with the XX genotype is called homogametic, so that the same gametes are assumed to be the same in the X-chromosome, and the XY genotype is heterogametic, since half of the gametes are to replace the X-, and half - the Y-chromosome. In humans, the genotypes on the basis of this individual are known to vivchayuchi cells. One X-chromosome is dependent on the active stage and mauvian viglyad. Іnsha, who won є, whoa in the camp, how to rest in the viglyadi of a dark-framed tilts, called by Barr's tycoon (optional heterochromatin). The number of Barr's children is one less than the number of obvious x-chromosomes, that is, in the body's organisms, it is not the same, in females (XX) - one. In humans, the Y chromosome is genetically inert, since there are very few genes in them. However, the injection of the Y-chromosome on the determination of the state in humans is even stronger. The chromosomal structure of the 44A + XY female and 44A + XX females is also the same as in Drosophina; however, in humans, the 44A + XD individual is a female, and the 44A + XXY individual is a human. In both stenchs, there was a defect in the stench, but it didn’t start to appear anyway, or it appeared on the day of the y-chromosome. People of the XXX2A genotype are a bezel-less woman, with the XXXY2A genotype - bezum-free rosaceous choloviks. Such genotypes are found as a result of non-proliferation of state chromosomes, which lead to a breakdown of development (for example, Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY). Chromosome mismatch occurs in meiosis, so in nitosis. mіsce in 100% vipadkіv.
All sowers of cholovic status, including ludin, so called H-Y antigen, are located on the surface of the clitin, which may be the Y-chromosome. The only function of this is the differentiation of the gonads. Secondary articles are signs of developing in the presence of steroid hormones, which are violated by gonads. The development of the secondary headings is a sign of testosterone control, which is infused into all cells of the body, including cells of the gonads. The mutation of all one X chromosome, which is the testosterone receptor block code, can lead to the syndrome of testicular felinization of XY individuals. Clitini-mutants are not sensitive to testosterone, as a result of which the grown-up organism of swelling rice, which is characteristic of female statics, is characteristic. With a wide range of internal organizations, they appear to be underappreciated and such individuals become sterile. In such a rank, the differentiation of statuses of workers and people in relation to chromosomal and genetic mechanisms is determined.
Unimportant to those women who have two X chromosomes, and people - only one, the expression of genes of X chromosomes is displayed on one and the same number in both articles. It should be explained that in women in their skin cells one X chromosome (Barr's telce) is activated, but it is said about it. The X chromosome is activated at the early stage of embryonic development, during the period of implantation. at the same time, the mother's X-chromosomes vimikayutsya vypadkovo in the children of the fatherland. The standard of activation of the given X-chromosome will settle down in a number of cell lines. Such a rank, female individuals, heterozygous for the genes of the state chromosomes, are mosaics (butt, turtles).
Such a rank, to become a human being is a changing sign, to settle down for the principle of vocal (analizu) schreschuvannya. Heterozygous is heterogametic pidlogy (XY), which clashes with recessive homozygote, represented by homogametic pidlogo (XX). As a result, there is a decline in the nature of the differentiation of organisms on the number and age of becoming and the style of speed in all generations of the most important articles.
1.2. Uspadkuvannya sign that is more important in the article
Morgan and his sportsmen remembered, so that the eyes of the Drosophila lie down among the stati of the fathers' individuals, so that there are alternative alleles. Chervone zabarvlennya eyes dominate over bila. When a red-eyed male was crossed with a black female in F1, an equal number of red-eyed females and blue-eyed males were trimmed. However, when a female is crossed with a red-eyed female in F1, boules are eliminated in an equal number of red-eyed males and females . When flies are clasped F 1, there are also boules of females, red-eyed and blue-eyed males, and not just black females. The fact is that in males the frequency will show recessive signs of bulging, lower in females, pointing to a thought, that the recessive allele, which is the origin of blood, is located in X - chromosome, and Y - chromosome is free of the gene for eye retention. In order to reconsider the hypothesis, Morgan crossed a wild-eyed female with a red-eyed female from F 1. In the offspring of the boule, the bull was removed by the male and female. Z tsogo Morgan justly uklav, but only X - the chromosome carries the gene for the eyes. In Y - chromosomes similar to the locus in the zagala is not. It’s a phenomenon that comes from the name of the inheritance, wrought from the past.
Geni, which are found in the state chromosomes, are called geniuses from the old. The X chromosome has a dilyanka, for a Y chromosome there is no homologue. To that, in individuals of the cholovich stati, signs that are initiated by the genes of the dilyanka, appear to navigate in that vypad, as the stench of recessive. The form is especially special, it allows you to clarify the meaning of the meaning, which is more significant in the article.
With localization, the sign of the yak is in the autosome, as well as in the X- b Y-chromosomes it is possible to develop outside the aging process.
In humans, close to 60 genes settle down at the link with the X chromosome, including hemofelia, daltonism (colortonism), dystrophy, darkening of a few teeth, one of the forms of agammoglobulinemia and іnshі. The decline of such signs is seen in the patterns established by G. Mendel. The X chromosome naturally transitions from one state to the next, when the daughter dumps the father's X chromosome, and the mother's X chromosome. Spadkuvannya, when there is a blue, it is a sign of a mother, and a daughter is a sign of a dad otrimalo, called Kriss-cross (abo chrest-navkhrest).
Because of the collapse of the colorectal gap, this is the name of the colorectal slap. The basis for the appearance of defects lies in a number of genes. Chervono-green slit is called color blindness. Still back to the appearance of genetics for example XVIII and XIX century. The bulo is established that color blindness is inherited according to the general rules. So, if a woman, like a wretched slap, walks behind a man with a normal vision, then some of the other children tend to have an even more peculiar picture of a perekhresnogo inheritance. All daughters from such a whore otrimayut signs of a dad, so that the stench may have a normal zir, and all blue, recognizable signs of a mother, suffer from a colossal slap (a-color blindness, signs of the X-chromosome).
At the same time, if navpaki, dad is color blind, and mother has a normal light, all children appear normal. In the surroundings, the de mother and father may be in a normal vision, half of the blue can appear as an exercise of color. In the main, the color slap is often seen at the choloviks. E. Vilson, explaining the success of these signs, letting go of localization in the X chromosome, and in humans, becoming heterogametic (XY), and becoming a cholovic. We are growing very intelligent, so in any homozygous normal woman (X a X a) with a color blind person (X a y) all children are normal. However, with all the daughters, all the daughters become color blind with their noses, which can be manifested in the coming generations.
The smaller butt of the inheritance of an old man from an old age, can serve as a recessive semi-lethal gene, as well as a lack of blood coagulation in the case of hemophilia. Tse zhvoryuvannya z'yavlyayutsya mayzhe viklyuchno only from the boys. With hemophilia, the approval of factor VIII will collapse, which will accelerate the throat of the blood. the gene, which detects syntech factor VIII, is located in the X-chromosome, non-dominant normal and recessive mutant. Possible offensive Genotype and phenotype:
In homozygous women, the hemophilia gene is lethal.
Individuals of female statuses, heterozygous for the addition of one of the older statutes, are signified by the nosy of a specific recessive gene. The stench is phenotypically normal, and half of the gametes are nonsensitive gene. Unimportant to the daddy's appearance of a normal gene, blue mothers with an imovirnism of 50% will suffer for hemophilia.
One of the best documented applications for the reduction of hemophilia is known in the family line of the lands of the English Queen Victoria. Let it be assumed that the hemophilia gene of winy is the result of a mutation in Queen Victoria herself, or in one of her fathers. Sered was sedated by the tse vrodzhene zhvoryuvannya - Tsarevich Oleksiy, the last Russian Tsar Mikoli II. Mother of the Tsarevich, Tsarina Oleksandra Fedorivna, rejected the hemophilia gene from her grandmother, Queen Viktoria, and passed it on in the fourth generation to the colossal decline of the royal throne. One of the more recent statutes of the recessive genes of the wicklica is a particular type of muscular dystrophy (Dumen's type). Qia dystrophy manifests itself in early childhood and deed before invalidity and death before the 20th century. That the choloviks with Dyumen's dystrophies do not conceal offspring, but the females are heterozygous for the genome of the disease, which is completely normal.
Among the dominant signs, linked to the X chromosome, it is possible to indicate a gene, such as a lack of organic phosphorus in the blood. As a result, with the presence of a gene, rachitis often develops, which is persistent until it is consumed in large doses of Vitamin A. In the case of nine sick women with healthy people in the middle of the children, half of the sick women and half of the boys. Here, according to the character of the dominant gene settling down, in the X chromosomes there is a splitting of 1: 1: 1: 1.
The smaller butt of the dominant gene, localized in the X-chromosome of humans, can be a gene that causes a defect in teeth, which can lead to darkening of the teeth.
So, as heterogametic pidlog is hemisytogenic in terms of age from old genes, then genes will appear in their phenotypes, to create a recessive stench. The majority of genes, evident in the X chromosomes, in the Y chromosomes during the day, still do not have a protein genetic information. There are two types of such information: in the first place, it can be found in the genes present in the Y-chromosomes, and, in other words, in the genes present in the Y-, as well as in the X-chromosomes (hemphragmatic origin)
The Y-chromosome is transmitted from the daddy to his synonyms, and only to him. From the same time, for genes, only in the Y chromosomes, there is a typical Dutch decline, so that the stench is transmitted from the dad to the blue and is manifested in the cholovic stati.
In humans, there are three genes in the Y chromosomes, one of which is necessary for the differentiation of individuals, the other is necessary for the manifestation of the antigen of histosity, and the third is injected into the size of the teeth. The Y-chromosome of the trochus is marked, the middle is pathological. Pathological signs to settle down according to parallel schemes of sedation (100% manifestation according to the number of lines). Prior to them, it should be mentioned:
1) oblisinnya;
2) hypertrichosis (hair growth of the tragus of the ear shell in the adult);
3) the appearance of overflows on the lower patterns;
4) іхтіоз (scaly and plyamiste growth of shkіri).
1.3. Uspadkuvannya signs, control over the past
Є a number of signs controlled by genes that are rosted in autosomes, however, for the manifestation of cichs, there is a need for a certain middle, as it is established by genes, as in the chromosomes -chromosomes, in the presence of one X-chromosome, cholovic signs appear.
1.4. Chromosomal decay theory
In robots on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, a bulo is established, so that genes for familiar social transmissions on the sites are divided into 4 groups. The number of such groups is accounted for by the number of chromosomes in the haploid set. It is possible to grow a knot, which is a sign of development, which settles down linked, controlled by genes of the same chromosome. Tsei visnovok will be primed also by the dates of the offensive steps. Red flies (B) with normal krills (V) and black flies (c) with germinal krills (v) yes in the 1st generation of blue hybrids with normal B1V krills // bv. When a male-hybrid of the 1st generation is shrunken with a black female with embryonic krill bb // vv, individuals of 2 species appear, similar to the outgoing Batkiv forms, and in the same number.
Otrimani in carrying out the study of the dan cannot be explained to the independent apprehensions of the sign. The social results are seen and both can be changed in the fact that the development of alternative signs is controlled by different genes, and the development of these signs is explained by the localization of genes in one chromosome.
The main provisions of the chromosomal theory of decay, formulated by T.G. Morgan, go on the offensive.
1. Genes grow in chromosomes; The difference in chromosomes is different in the number of genes of skin chromosomes.
2. Alena geni occupy the same identical loci of homologous chromosomes.
3. In chromosomes, genes grow in singularity in a linear order.
4. Geni of the same chromosome make up a group of grains, which are not easy to understand; the strength of heat transfer in the fertile fallowness from the origin of the genes.
5. dermal biological species is characterized by a specific set of chromosomes for the karyotype.
1.5. mechanism of heat
Geni, localized in one chromosome, is called a group of arthritis. The number of groups is related to the haploid set of chromosomes.
If two different pairs of genes are found in the same homologous pair of chromosomes, then the genotype will be written AB // ab.
Geni, which are found in the same pair of homologous chromosomes, settle down at once and do not disperse in the offspring, as during gametogenesis, the stench is compulsively consumed in one gamete. Spilne dormant geniv, which is surrounded by vilne combinuvannya is called generations. For sedation of genetic genes, which are found in the state chromosomes, it is meant directly.
It is necessary for mothers on respect, besides true wisdom, there may be a development, similar to wisdom, notes from nature: the price is so called pardon, combining chromosomal Such vipodi were spontaneous in the distribution of lines of laboratory misha and others. Transmission is also carried out between the genes of the young chromosomes of the goiters, and there are no tendencies that remain to non-drooping changes in meiosis. The reduction of chromosome genes also appears in the case of multi-species distribution in quiet areas, since the father's combination of chromosomes appears physiologically summous. It is more common to see the development of genes as true genes, but to be found in the same chromosome - in the same group of genes.
2. BIOTECHNOLOGIS I GENNA INZHENERIYA
2.1. biotechnology
Divovizhnimi vіdkrittyami in nautsі i grandіoznim NAUKOVO-tehnіchnim Progreso oznamenuvavsya XX stolіttya against NAUKOVO-tehnіchny progression in teperіshnomu viglyadі Got negativnі Side: vicherpannya vikopnih resursіv zabrudnennya navkolishnogo seredovischa, zniknennya bagatoh vidіv Roslyn i tvarin, global zmіna klіmatu, appeared ozone dіr over the poles Zemlі etc. It’s clear that such a way is in the wilderness. It is necessary for the principle of changing the vector of development. Biotechnology can make a huge contribution to the global problems of humanity.
Biotechnology - the price of living organisms (or warehouses) for practical purposes. If we talk about modern biotechnology, then it is more important to add the words: on the basis of molecular biology... As long as there is no such supplement, then for the purpose of "biotechnology" it is necessary to consume and traditionally s / g, food and rich galuzei of grub industry, as well as microorganisms. We are paying attention to one of the types of biotechnology, but also to genetic engineering, which is completely new in medical chemistry, in energy production, in new materials, in the protection of the new medium. Genna engineering - the whole technology of manipulation from speech decay - DNA.
During the test, a DNA molecule can be tested in a small muscle, isolated and purified around a fragment, synthesized from two deoxyribonucleotides, and such fragments can be used. The result of such manipulations is "hybrid", or recombinant DNA molecules, which have never been found in nature.
The fate of the genetics engineering is coming in 1972, since in the laboratory of Paul Berg in the United States, it was in the test of persha that it was recombinant to replicate, so that it could multiply, in the bacterium of E. coli bacillus. The very appearance of genetic engineering has become a source of fundamental insights into molecular biology.
In 60-th rocky, the genetic code was deciphered, so they set it up, so that the cutaneous amino acid is encoded into the nucleotide codon in DNA. It is especially important that the genetic code is universal for all living beings. Tse means that the whole light is “rozmovlya” in one mov. If you transfer DNA to a “foreign” cell, then the information will be coded into it, if it is correctly received by the recipient.
It was established that there was a special DNA message, that the ear and the end of the transcript, translation, and replication began. Practically all systems, in the first approximation, can be used up to the DNA after-events, and by using these signals. It is necessary to say that they themselves are signals to grow up in different organisms. With this said, if you take a structural gene (for example, people) and in vitro preserve it with signals characteristic of the bacterial cell gene, then such a structure, placed in the bacterial cell, will be useful before the synthesis of a human biological.
The fundamental peculiarity of genetics is the building of the DNA structure, since nicholas do not become established in living nature. Genna іngеnerіya podolala bar, which іsnu in the living light, de genetic exchange, only in the boundaries of one species, or close-spore species of organisms. Vona is allowed to transfer genius from one living organism to a be-like one. qia new technology I saw the boundless perspectives of microorganism stemming, roslin and creatures with new cinnamon properties. The axis of what, in the most advanced lands, is the rule of robots, laws, and regulating genetic engineering. Law on "genetically engineered performance" adopted by the parliament of the Russian Federation in Lipna 1996
It is hard to tell about all aspects of storing the technology of genetic engineering in biotechnology or scientific advances. Guidedly deprived of the butt punch, so that you can use the flexibility method.
One of the most important direct lines of genetic engineering is the development of the new generation, which is a biologically active little people. Slid nagadati, which in a large variety of people (such as and other animals) species specificity, so that you can choose only small people for a taste of people. In addition, there is a problem of rejecting human bolsheviks in necessary numbers.
At the sound of the word, we say the history of the rejection of the interferon. In 1957, the English vcheni Issaaks and Lindelman were sick with the flu, they were not sick until they were infected with the most insecure viruses. The pre-warning of the spared manifestation called to the visnovka, the children of food and the people in the opinion of the virus of infection, they see the word, as if to rob the health of the children with the strong before the virus. Tsya rechovina (abo speech) otrimalo name interferon.
Throughout the offensive 20 rockyvs were intensively continued. Bulo is established, but Interferoni is a group of bricks, it can be classified up to 3 classes - alpha, betta and gamma. Blood leukocytes see interferon type alpha, fibroblasts type betta and T-type leukocytes type gamma . Interferon was seen, cleaned and showed an effect of anti-tiering. In addition, the cells have proven to be effective in the treatment of rosy sclerosis and some types of cancer. There is little accessibility to interferons just by one step. The stench was synthesized in a couple of small quantities: dzherelom їkh їkh їkh їkh їkh їkh їkh їkh їkh donor shelter, or the culture of klіtin people. Unfortunately, it was not allowed to cut off Interferon in the amount of necessary medicine.
U 1980 - 1985 rr. in decile laboratories of light, including in the CPCP, they saw the geni of people, and they start synthesizing interferons, and introducing them into bacteria. Such bacteria have become useful to synthesize human interferon. It is even more important, how the smell grows fast, the vicorist is to produce a cheap lively middle and synthesize a great number of bottles. With 1 liter of bacterial culture, you can see the style of human alpha interferon, with 10 yew. L. donor blood. Otrimanium blocks are absolutely identical to interferon, which is synthesized in the body of people. Zvychay, brought virishuvati foldable zavdannya purification of interferon, cut off by the method of genetic engineering, to a homogeneous camp.
More than 4 - 6 years were occupied by reports and clinical tests. Nareshti in 1989 -1990 rr. z'yavilosya nove lyki - human interferon alpha; in Russia, it is issued under the name "Reaferon". The group was awarded the Lenin Prize for this work.
Chronic hepatitis A single drug that is effective against viral hepatitis in hospitals, as well as in chronic forms, against herpes, colds. Interferon stagnates in the therapy of children with cancer. Beyond the cordon, since 1994, preparations have been dispensed between betta and gamma - interferon in people.
The most common drugs in recombinant human blood medical treatment, Slide name insulin, growth hormone, eritropoietin. Pig insulin is born as a human being in one aminic acid. Zastosovuєte from 1926 r for the treatment of people with insulin-dependent sugar diabetes. For the growth hormone and eritropoietin it means, as for the interferon, the species-specificity of the protein. Genna іngеnerіya has introduced a new possibility of vicarious cich bіlkіv in medicine. The growth hormone stagnates not only to fight against dwarfism, but is widely used as a stimulant for healing wounds, growing cysts. Hormones for the growth of twins began to grow vikoristovuvati in s / g (15% increase in milk yield of corins, accelerating the growth of ribs). Erythropoietin is a stimulant of blood formation and vicorisation in cases of anemia.
In a given hour in the light of day, more than 30 drugs were delivered to the supply, which were processed by methods of genetic engineering, and more than 200 were in the early stages of clinical studies. Infection of more than 20% of the pharmaceutical market leads to the development of new biotechnologies.
Vikoristannya of recombinant human beings is a fundamentally new therapy. Do not introduce any stranger. It’s good, as long as it’s not getting insulin in the new growth hormone, it’s okay to do it (change the therapy). Organism itself fights against viruses against the help of interferons - a person simply helps him.
Significant successes have been achieved in the genn_y of engineering of roslin. The technology is based on the methods of cultivating the clitin and tissue of the growth in the test and the possibility of regeneration of the whole growth from the surface of the clitin.
Roslin's genetic engineering has its own problems. One of them is the fact that the abundant brown powers of roslin are encoded not by one, but by many genes. To pursue an important, or ill-humored, direct genetic engineering with a thorough understanding of the powers that be. It is difficult to cultivate and regenerate cells in the middle of growing species, for example, cereals. Shrink the results to be discarded, if the transfer of one gene can lead to the appearance of coriander power in the growing line.
Uninvolved in obmezhennya, otrimanі hostile results: cultivated varieties of bavovnik, tomatoes, tyutyun, rice, stiff to coma-shkіdnikіv, viruses, fungal malady. A pioneer in the area of supplying genetic engineering roslin in s / g - USA. Here, in 1996, up to 20% of the donations to the bavovnik were violated to those modified by the method of genetic engineering.
The development of genetic engineering (they call it transgenic at the same time) has a lot of principles that are difficult, but also the origin of transgenic roslin, and itself: a multitude of genes, so that they start with state-of-the-art signs. Tim is not the least, є the region is developing rapidly, it is tied to the roots of transgenic creatures - producers of biologically active bolsheviks.
In other organisms, specific genes codify the presence of bricks in the singing tissues. I want all the geniuses to take revenge in the skin cells, in the special cells, only the ones from them, and the specificity of the fabric. The application can be used for making milk bins (gosein, lactalbumin) in milk vines. Є The ability to provide us with the gene we need for the regulatory after-life, for example, casein, and discard the foreign block at the milk warehouse. It is important to know that the creature sees itself as normal, as it’s a foreign gene that’s just right in the process of lactation.
We already have hundreds of transgenic sheep and children, which produce in young from dozens of milligrams to decile grams of biologically active people in 1 liter of milk. Such a method is economically guided and ecologically cleaner, I want it to be seen by the disciples of the great Zusil and for an hour with the establishment of transgenic foods in the early stages of genetically engineered microorganisms.
Milk of transgenic creatures can be used to trim not only liquors. Seemingly, a necessary enzyme is needed for the production of high-quality sir, milk is curdled, - rennin. This enzyme is added to the slurry of dairy calves. Win dorig and do not wait for availability. Nareshty, genetic engineers designed others, which became viral and valuable blocks in microbiological synthesis.
The advance stage of genetic engineering is the stem of transgenic sheep, which synthesizes chymosin in milk. A small flock of our sheep in Russia is located on the Leninsky Gorki near Moscow. To synthesize up to 300 mg / l of the enzyme in milk. For the process of food production, it is possible not to see it, but to simply pick it up in a milk warehouse.
You can expand biotechnology in the region, as there is chemistry for the whole year. Tse - Biocatalysis (replacement of chemical catalysis) and new materials. One of the processes of biocatalysis, which has been successfully implemented in industry, is the elimination of acrylamide from acrylonitrile.
CH2 = CH-CN -> CH2 = CH-C = 0
Acrylamide is used as an exemplary monomer for the removal of polymers and copolymers, which are widely used for purified water and drains, in the middle, for sanitized juices and wines, prepared farms, etc.
Until recently, the process of nitrite hydrolysis was carried out at 105 C in the presence of hydrochloric acid. When the process was finished, the acid was neutralized with ammonia. There is a great amount of ammonium hydrochloric acid, in the kintsev rakhunka appeared in the rivers. Bully is great vitrati energy, smartly worried about possession, and the quality of acrylamide was too much of a bastard.
In 1987, the Institute of Genetics and the selection of industrial microorganisms, with their colleagues from the Saratov Branch of the Institute, started to make a joke about the nature of microorganisms, which could change the technology of microorganisms. For a number of manipulations to eliminate microorganisms, which are synthesized in 10 thousand. Developed more enzyme - nitrilhydratase, leading to the transformation of acrylonitrile.
Achievement of them is realized in practice. At one of the factories, where the release of antibiotics, the release of a biocatalyst was added, so that the required microorganisms, and at 3 factories, the process of biocatalytic removal of acrylamide was established. The process works at a room vice and temperature, annealing, little energy consumption. The process is practically unavailable, ecologically clean. The obsession with the new acrylamide method produces high purity, but it is important, since a larger part of it is far from polymerizing into polyacrylamide, and the quality of the polymer is strongly deposited due to the purity of the monomer.
The small butt is not for Biocatalysis, but for Biocatalysis. For a long time now they have paid respect to the even more valuable mechanical power to the material, from which we can weave the weave.
Pavutinka is about 100 times thinner than human hair, all the material is thinner, steel, volodya has unique elasticity, practically does not change the authorities at changing temperatures, material, etc. Pitannya, de take a great number of pavutini for a similar price?
Genna Engineering came to the rescue. Some of them saw genes, who were indicative of the synthesis of white pavutin, and transferred them to microorganisms. In 1995, there was an appearance of American pre-ages, that in microorganisms the necessary block was efficiently synthesized. This rank leads to the industrial microbiological synthesis of new material.
Allow for the growth of microorganisms to get cheap starch, syrup and other s / g products, so that the syruin is reintroduced.
Required information. It’s not a thread that is synthesized by bacteria, but an amorphous block as it is, like a pawuki. The thread is set up, if the pavuk sees the blocks from the nozzles of its halls. Technically, it is possible to adapt the process, pushing the amorphous block through the arc of a thin opening. The first strings from the microbial bottle are already rejected. Є There is a real possibility of polishing the miraculous quality of the pavutin, bringing the changes into the amino acid after the end of the bottle.
Putting a butt is far from overwhelming all practical aspects of genetic engineering. We didn’t stick around the food of the energy industry, protect the middle-class, a vid of cinnamon copalins, microbiological promises, and even more important nutrition - the role of genetic engineering in the development of molecular biology itself.
Nova "Green Revolution", as it is already respected, to give roselin, which does not require pesticides, but in the future - in nitrogen dobriva. pinned vikoristannya
Chemistry pesticides can quickly polish the camp of the midst of the midst, while the vitrati of oil and gas at their disposal (by 3%). There are new materials, new products, high-productive creatures, new food products.
During the visit of the expert to the US Congress, "biotechnology in the best world changes the way people live in the XXI century."
2.2. Genna Engineering
On the current day, there are hundreds of genetically changing products. Already stretching out a few rocky and live millions of people in the great land of the world. Є Dani, with some technologies to use some technologies to deny products, to be realized through the McDonalds hedge. Bagato is a great concern, such as Unilever, Nestle, Danon, and they are vikoristic for the production of their goods, genetically engineered products and exported in a rich country. Ale in the Bagatyokh lands such products are bound by the blame for the mystery on the packaging is written "Probleno from a genetically modified product".
Deyaki vvazhayut, right, introducing snakes into the gene code of the growth of the creature, vcheni rocking the same, and nature itself. Absolutely all living organisms from bacteria to humans are the result of mutations and natural species.
Butt. If it was a roselin, the decal of a thousand people wandered, and the stench sprouted. Among a thousand, a couple of deyakas have appeared, they will appear to be like a daddy, so that they will actually be mutants. As soon as the snakes are shkidliv for the growing line, then it’s sagging, and if it’s brown, then there will be more offspring, and so can a new type of growth be adopted. It’s like nature, for the adoption of new species, it is necessary to have a lot of thousands of years, then sometimes it is necessary to intimidate the process for a bit of rock. Yakis principled zhiznitsi nemay.
Nayposhirenіshі - soybeans, corn, olive rape and bavovna. At the doyakhi krajina for viroshuvannya grabbed transgenic tomatoes, rice, zucchini. Experiments are carried out on dormouse, red beets, tyutyun, grapes, trees, etc. Most of the cultural growth is growing stiff to herbicides, comas and viruses. The resistance to herbicides allows the "harvested" roselin to be non-removable to lethal for the higher doses of chemicals. As a result, the field is cleaned from all wooded roses, tobto bur'yan, and cultures, stiff or tolerant (tolerant) to herbicides, see. Most often the company, which sells more roslin, is promoted in a set and all kinds of herbicides. The flora is truly fearless: for example, an immortal Colorado beetle, a leaf of cartopla, guinea. Mayzhe all of these growths are responsible for the induction of a gene for a natural toxin - the earth bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. The resistance to the roslin virus of the nabuvian plant in the generated gene, taken from the virus itself.
The main mass of transgenes is cultivated in the USA, in Canada, Argentina, China, and less in other countries. Europe is also sturbed. Amid the onslaught of the community and the organization of the living, who want the nobility, but the smell, in some countries, a moratorium on the import of such products is prohibited (Austria, France, Greece, Great Britain, Luxembourg). In the іnshikh we have taken a zhorstka vimoga markuvati genetically altered food.
Austria and Luxemburg fenced off the virgin genetics of mutants, and the Greek farmers, along with the black warriors and the posters in their hands, fled to the fields in Boeo, in Central Greece, and the plantations, on some of the British feasts. 1300 English schools They have turned on their menus to take revenge on transgenic growers, and France is even more reluctant, and generally gives a grasp on the sale of new products with foreign genes. In the ЄC, only three types of genetically changing roselin are allowed, and, more precisely, three varieties of corn.
Soybeans are a single transgenic culture, allowed until zasosuvannya in Russia. On the way - transgenic cartope, corn and red beet.
Yakshho in 1996, in the light of transgenic crops, 1.8 million hectares were occupied, then in 1999 there were more than 40 million hectares. And in 2001, according to forecasts, there will be no less than 60 million. It’s not good for China, which doesn’t allow the official information, ala, for estimates, close to a million Chinese farmers grow transgenic bavovna by about 35 million hectares.
The first piece of product changing by becoming a pomidor. And so new power has become the building for months to lie in under-ripening viglyadі at a temperature of 12 degrees. Ale yak only such a pomidor will help you warmly, it will become stiglim for a few years.
American companies Origen Therapeutics and Embrex plan to benefit the mass of cloned chicken. The sense of all this is obvious: the circulation of one single fat bird, a little yak, quickly growing up and not sick, seems to be on the right superbly visible. Previously, they were held for the training of the National Institute of Science and Technology, which saw 4.7 million dollars for the project, and gave concrete results. The technology of cloning in its own snake vigil, so that the allowance for the transfer of the nucleus of the donor cell into the egg from the onset of the implantation of the surrogate mother, is unsuitable for children, it’s very hard to grow up Genetic copies are curled up in the lowest rank. Whenever you see and multiply the embryonic stems of the donor, all fabrics develop with the growth of the embryo. Then the cells are implanted in a special egg. Strictly it seems that one should walk in such a rank of kurcha - not a genetic copy, but a "chimera", to take revenge with donor clines at once, that is, they will be in eggs. However, at the end of the day, they asked for more than 95% of donor clones, and a 100% clone was drilled. For a massive virobniztva of such people, it is planned to vikoristovuvati special machines, it is planned to introduce in a year 50 thousand years.
Americans have achieved the wrinkle of midnight, tulips. Viveli variety of kartoplі, which, when lubricated, absorbs less fat. Smell soon planuyut pomidori-giganti cubic form, but it will be easier to pack in boxes. The Swiss feasted on the virgin corn, yak saw the whipwash against the shkidniks.
Buv of the pomodor iz zyabrami - pomodor, in which for the improvement of frostiness they implanted the gene of the American American flat rib. Before the speech, the male hybrid of vegetables and ribby has taken the nickname "Frankenstein's siblings".
At the Moscow Institute of Cartography, there is a cartopen with human blood interferon, which is augmenting immunity. And in the Institute of Creativity, a patent was revoked for the creation of a syrup enzyme in young people, which is necessary for the production of a syru. Fakhivtsi save, when new technologies virobnitstva sira, all 200 sheep will be finished, and all Russia will be protected by the sire.
This year's work is done over the stems of the "smart roses", so that they can give the farmers an SOS signal, if you don’t run out of water or at the first signs of sickness. With a revolving move, the robots walk along the plastic stem, as it was ruined, and played in the navkolishnє middle - in the olіynі culture, to introduce geni bacteria, which allows us to biologically run the plastic directly in the fields. Not long ago, the Americans said that they had added to the gene the structure of the extravagant geni of the roslin, which was quitty with a blaky color. There was a real possibility of revolutionizing the market of denim fabrics - it is far more possible to pinch the skid in the middle of the midst of branded waste waters. This technology will be launched at the company in 2005.
Experiments are being carried out in the only area - the area of smells. They do not like the smell of Trojands, which are too boring for such people - for such people it is possible to viroshuvati Trojandi, zapashnі lemon. You can create a virostity trojan that looks like the aroma of Kelvin Klein perfumes - the manipulation of genes, which can be perceived as a smell, and allows you to create roses with any aroma.
1. Behind the singers of all demographers, in the nearest twenty years of the population earthly coo get drunk. It will be simply uncomfortable to creep up with modern agriculture and agricultural technologies, to blow away such a number of people. Otzhe, already at once it is time to think about those, as with the most expenses, to increase the yield of silgospugid vdvichi. Oskilki for extravagant selection of terms in two ten years in the province of Maliy, then there will be no mechanical modification genetic code roslin. It is possible, for example, to add the gene of stiffness to the coma-shkidniks or to grow the growth of more pliable ones. This is the main argument of the transgenetics.
2. With the help of genetic engineering, it is possible to improve genetically in the production of genetically altered products instead of cinnamon vernaculars and vitamins in porous varieties with "pure" varieties. For example, you can "insert" Vitamin A into rice, so that you can see it in the regions, because people see it fail.
3. It is possible to expand the habitat of sowing silgosproducts, attaching them to extreme minds, such as dry and cold.
4. By means of genetic modification of roslin it is possible to change the intensity of irrigation with pesticides and herbicides. We'll drop the butt here є already introduced into the corn genome of the genome of the earth bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, also supplying the roslin with a vlast zakist, so called Bt-toxin, and robbing the geneticists for the idea of dodatka stump without a glaze.
5. Genetically changing products can be added political powers... Let us try to add a banana, instead of analgin, and lettuce, and virobly a vaccine against hepatitis B.
6. The number of genetically modified roslin can be cheaper and tastier.
7. Modified views and help provide new ideas and solutions to environmental problems. Rosettes are constructed, effectively glaze zinc, cobalt, cadmium, nickel and metal from obstructed industrial entrances of soils.
8. Genna Engineering to allow polishing the quality of life, and even more so - literally promoting it; є the hope to know the genius, leading to the old organism and reconstructing it.
VISNOVOK
At the abstract, the bully looked out tsikava theme- genetics, genetic engineering and biotechnology.
Thus, genetics are more important than a place in the life of a people. I will explain myself by the mechanisms of decline, which is a sign of people, both pathological and positive. So, to become a people is a meaningful sign, to settle down for the principle of a ringing shhreshuvannya.
In females, pidlogu is heterogametic (XY), in choloviks it is homogametic. In the middle of the sign, how to comply with the laws of G. Mendel, to understand the signs of understanding in a concatenated manner. However, this is often incomprehensible, the reason for that crossing over, which is less important biologically, is to lie in the basis of combinative minutia.
List of vikoristanikh dzherel
1. F. Antala, J. Keiger, Suchasna genetics, Moscow, "Mir", 199, Vol. 1.
2.S.G. Inge-Vechtomov, Genetics with the basics of selection, Moscow, "Vishcha shkola", 1989.
3. N.P. Dubinin, Zagalna genetics, Moscow, "Science", 1970.
4. BMP, Moscow, " Radianska encyclopedia", 1962r., Vol. 25.
5. N. Grin, Biology, Moscow, "Mir", 1993.
6. A.P. Pekiv, Biology and Genetics, Moscow, Russian University of Friendship of Peoples, 1994.
7. M.Є. Lobashev, Genetics, Leningrad, Vidavnitstvo Leningrad University, 1967.
8. V.M. Yarigin, Biology, Moscow, "Medicine", 1985.
9. F. Kibernstern, Geni and Genetics, Moscow, "Paragraph", 1995.
10. V.P. Balashov, T.N. Shevorokova, Problem Book of Medical Genetics, Saransk, Vidavnistvo Mordovia University, 1998.
Genetics is a whole science, so that the laws of transmission are marked from the fathers' individuals to the squares. This discipline is also about looking at power and building to the point of being small. At the same time, in the quality of information, there are special structures - geni. In this hour, science has accumulated enough information. Vona is a kilka of razdiliv, leathery volodya with their own staff and ob'ykty doslidzhen. Naybіlshі vіzdіlіv: classic, molecular, і
Classical genetics
Genetics is classical - the whole science of decay. The power of all organisms is to pass on the hour of reproduction of their own birth and internal signs to the offspring. Genetics is also classic, and it is also a matter of vivchennyam minlivosti. Vona turn around in the instability of the sign. Time of change accumulates from generation to generation. Only those zavdyaky such unstable organisms can become attached to the changes in the midst of the midst.
Spadkova information of organisms is stored in genes. In this hour, I look at it from the point of view of molecular genetics. If you want to win, you will see the understanding back before you see the break.
The terms "mutation", "DNA", "chromosomes", "minlity" have become visible in the process of numerical development. The infection of the results of the bugs was evident, but everything was repaired with the bugs. People paused to neglect cows with great milk yields, larger pigs and sheep with thick wool. Tse bully pershі, navіt not science, until. However, the same change of minds led to the discovery of such science, like the classic genetics. Right up to the 20th century, we will be able to see and use an accessible method of communication. The very results of classical genetics have become significant achievements modern science biology.
molecular genetics
It’s a whole lot of things, like all the laws governing the processes on the molecular basis. The more important the power of all living organisms is the same decline, so that the stench of the building from generation to generation takes the basic rice of your body, as well as the schemes of running through the communication processes in the middle of the next generation. It’s the decision to make sure that at the molecular level, special speeches are written down and saved all the information is discarded, and then passed on to the next generation before the end of the day. As a result of the conversation and further away, it has become possible to start the buddies of Budov and Klitini at the Chemists' Rivne. Thus, nucleic acids are the basis of genetic material.
Indication of "decaying molecules"
Chasna genetics know practically everything about nucleic acids, ale, very well, so don't expect it. Perche pripuschennya about those who cheery speeches It can be knitted because of the decline, but it was hanging in the 19th century. At that time, biohimik F. Misher and brothers-biologists Gertvig were involved in the development of the problem. In 1928, the revisions of N.K.Koltsov's doctrines, spiraling into the results until the end of the day, letting in all the downturns in the power of living organisms are coded and distributed in giant “decaying molecules”. At the same time, stating that the molecules are stored in the ordered Lanks, Yaki, Vlasne, and Genes. Tse was madly booming. Also Koltsov, meaning that these "decay molecules" are packed in cells in a special structure called chromosomes. Over the course of the year, the hypothesis has known its approval and has given the post development of science in the 20th century.
Development of science in the 20th century
The development of genetics and further developments have led to a number of not less important indications. The bulo is established that the skin chromosome in the cells will take revenge on all one great DNA molecule, which will be folded from two threads. Numerous variations are the geni. The main function of the field is that it smells with a special rank and provides information about Budova bile enzymes. Alle the implementation of decay information in singular signs against the participation of one type of nucleic acid - RNA. It is synthesized on DNA and known copy of the gene. You need to transfer information to ribosomes, and the synthesis of enzyme proteins will take place. bulo was recorded in 1953, and RNA - in the period from 1961 to 1964 rik.
In an hour, molecular genetics began to develop in seven-league crocs. Cybercriticality became the basis of dosage, as a result of such a bullet of the openings of the decay information. The whole process is based on molecular analysis in cells. Likewise, we got rid of principally new types of information about the acquisition of information in genes. Years later, the bulo was set up, as it is used by the mechanisms of the DNA submaintenance before (replication), the processes of reading the information by the RNA molecule (transcription), the synthesis of protein enzymes (translation). Also, the principle of the change in the decline rate was revealed and the role of the internal and external middle class was identified.
Deciphering the DNA structure
The methods of genetics have developed intensively. The deciphering of the chromosomal DNA has become the most important thing for us. Z'yasuvalosya, scho isnuє all two types of dalyanok lantsyuga. Smells are seen one from one nucleotide rosette. In the first type of skin, the dilyanku is free, so that the power is unique. Another revenge is the number of regularly repeated messages. The stinks of boules are called repetitions. In 1973, it was established that the fact that the unique zones are inevitably absorbed by the singing genes. Once again, it will end with a repeat. There is a whole lot of code for enzymatic proteins, and RNA is read by them when reading information from DNA.
The first insight into the genn_y_engineering
There are new methods of genetics that have led to more findings. Bulo reveals the unique power of all living matter. Find out about the quality of the number of items in the DNA lance. The stench can winicatie as a result of negative negative influences. The state before the self-renewal of the bull is called the “process of genetic reparation”. In the Danish hour there is a lot of change in life to fill with the facts of hope for the possibility of "catching" the singing genius from the cells. How can you give it? In the first place, there is a possibility of usuvat genetic defects. Genetic engineering is responsible for such problems.
replication process
Molecular genetics of the process of transmission of decay information during reproduction. Preserving the integrity of the record encoded in the genes, taking care of the exact її їіdvorennya before the hour of the client's time. The whole mechanism of this implantation process is in detail. I saw, right before the time, as I see the roses in the cells, the replication is there. The process of subdividing DNA. Win supervising absolutely exact copies of cob molecules following the rule of complementarity. Seemingly, DNA strands of all types of nucleotides are stored in the warehouse. Tse guanin, adenin, cytosine and thymine. It follows from the rule of complementarity, as shown by F. Crick and D. Watson in 1953, in the structure of the sub-lancet DNA adenine is derived from thymine, and to the cytidyl nucleotide - guanilium. Before an hour, the process of replication is updated to accurately copy the skin lancet of DNA by the way of substituting the required nucleotide.
Genetics is a science that is somewhat young. The process of replication of bouvings of liche in the 50s of the 20th century. Todi and biofeedback enzyme DNA-polymerase. In the 70s, the rock music, the song of the bagatories, the bulo is set up, and the replication is the process of a complex stage. In the synthesis of DNA molecules, take on the fate of a few other types of DNA polymerase.
Genetics and health
All kinds, connected with point-to-point reports of decline information, for an hour, the processes are widely stagnant in modern medical practice. Thoroughly evolve the laws of power for healthy organisms, as well as for pathological changes in them. For example, it has been brought and confirmed by the slains, that the elimination of certain ailments can be reached when infused into the processes of replication of genetic material and delay. For example, such incapacitation, such as the damage and destruction of phosphorus exchange, without the need for an average response to DNA replication. How can you change such a camp? Also synthesized and viprobuvanny drugs, which stimulate fitting processes. Smell activate DNA replication. The process of normalization and renewal of pathological conditions, related to diseases. Ale genetic donors do not stand on the wrong track. With dermal rock, you will get more and more tribute, which will help you not only to help you, but also to help you get sick ailments.
Genetics and drugs
Molecular genetics is even more important for health nutrition. The biology of the viruses and microorganisms is such that it is necessary to bring the decals to a complete replication of DNA in the human body. It has already been established that the cause of the illnesses is not the rotting process, but the overworldly activity. First for everything, tse viral and bacterial infections. The stench is overwhelmed by the fact that pathogenic microbes are multiplied at an accelerated rate in the battle cells and tissues. Also, until given pathology, oncological illnesses are recognized.
In the last hour, a number of lykarsky forces have been brought into being, as a result of strangling the replication of DNA in the cells. Most of them were synthesized by radians. The goals are widely used in medical practice. They include, for example, a group of anti-tuberculous drugs. We know and antibiotics, so that we can detect the processes of replication and development of pathological and microbial cells. The stench dopomagayut organizmu shvidko fit into foreign agents, do not give їm multiply. Such medicinal preparations will not provide an indication of a medicinal effect in case of a large number of serious infectious diseases. And especially wide zasosuvannya tsі koshti knew when lіkuvannі poohlin і new food. Tse is a priority direct, like vibrav the Institute of Genetics of Russia. Shoroku will receive new drugs that will improve the development of oncology. Tse gave hope to tens of thousands of ill people in the whole world.
Transcription and translation processes
In order to carry out additional laboratory tests with genetics and disclaim the results about the role of DNA and gene matrices for the synthesis of proteins, for some hour now they were thinking about how amino acids get into more folded molecules. It became clear to me that the new tributes were rejected, but it was not so. Amino acids will not be found on gene dies in DNA. The bulo is installed, with a folding process going through the steps. A collection of genes is known for the exact copy - information of the RNA. Molecules travel from the cellin nucleus and are transferred to special structures - ribosomes. The accumulation of amino acids and the synthesis of proteins are produced on the same organelles. The process of removing copies of DNA is called "transcription". And the synthesis of bilks under the control of informational RNA is "translation". The development of the exact mechanisms of these processes and the principles injected onto them is the head of the modern development of the genetics of molecular structures.
Significant mechanisms of transcription and translation in medicine
In the last years, it became obvious that a scrupulous look at all stages of transcription and translation is of great importance for the modern protection of health. The Institute of Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences has long since confirmed the fact that during the development of a practical disease, it means an intensive synthesis of toxic and simply awkward ones for the human body. The whole process can be controlled by gene control, which is inactive in the normal state. Along with the introduction of synthesis, for some reason they have penetrated into cells and tissues of people and pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Likewise, the adoption of high-profile patients can stimulate and actively develop oncological new solutions. The very thoroughly vivchennya of all stages of the transcription and translation in a given hour is even more important. So it is possible to find ways to fight not only with insecure infections, but also with cancer.
Modern genetics - no interruptions in the jokes of the mechanisms in the development of ailments and drug preparations for their treatment. The infection can also drive down the translation processes in the affected organs, or the organisms as a whole, by themselves strangling the heat. In principle, it is itself prompted by the greater variety of antibiotics, for example, tetracycline or streptomycin series. All types of drugs are vibrating in the cells of the process of translation.
Significance of continued genetic recombination processes
Even more important for medicine is the more detailed implementation of the processes of genetic recombination, which is responsible for the transfer and exchange of chromosomes and additional genes. This is an important factor in the development of infectious diseases. Genetic recombination is the basis of penetration into the clit of people and introduction into the DNA of alien, often viral, material. In rezultatі vіdbuvaєtsya synthesis on ribosomes not "rіdnih" organіzmu bіlkіv and pathogenicity for Demba. For CIM principle vіdbuvaєtsya reproduktsіya in klіtinah tsіlih kolonіy vіrusіv. Metodi spryamovanі on rozrobku zasobіv Borotba of іnfektsіynimi zahvoryuvannyami i for zapobіgannya zbіrki pathogenic vіrusіv. Krіm order nakopichennya Informácie about genetic recombination, the principle of exchange of genes between organisms allowed the intelligence, and it called for genetically modified roslin and tvarin to appear.
The significance of molecular genetics for biology and medicine
For the rest of the time, a great deal of glory was celebrated in molecular genetics, and a great contribution was made to the progress of all biological sciences. The medicine was especially strong. The successes of genetic dosages allowed the intelligence of a non-magnetic process of sedation of genetic signs and development individual features people. Primitively, those, as shvidko tsya science from a purely theoretical has grown into a practical one. Vona has become the best choice for modern medicine. In detail, the development of molecular genetic patterns served as the basis for the rationalization of the processes that are introduced into the body of both sick and healthy people. Genetics itself gave the development of such sciences as virology, microbiology, endocrinology, pharmacology and immunology.
1865 rik- Vidkrittya G. Mendel (1822-1884) factors in the decline and development of the hybridological method, i.e. the Rules for the formation of organisms and signs in their offspring.
1868 rik- Swiss biochemist F. Misher with salmon sperm seen in phosphorus streams, which are taken from cell nuclei, which are called nuclei (now they call it deoxyribonucleic acid).
1871 rik- Ch. Darwin published his book "Walking People and Articles of Vidbir".
1875 rik- F. Galton demonstrates the power of victorious twins for the vivification of an admirable infusion on the organism of decay and middling.
1900 rik- Formal folk genetics yak science. Independent publication of articles by G. de Fries, K. Correns and E. Chermak with a cycle of basic laws of success. In fact, the translation of the criterion has become the broad scientific community of G. Mendel.
1902 rik- W. Sutton and T. Boveri are right on the basis of the chromosomal theory of decay.
Rik 1905- W. Betson proponated the word "genetics" (in Greek Γιγνομαι - rookjuwati) For the new straight science.
Rik 1909- V. Iogansen proponate the term “genotype”.
1910 rik- Thomas Hunt Morgan established that the genes of the chromosomes are rosted in a linear order, making a group of grains. Morgan, having established the same regularities, Nobel Prize 1933 p Physiology and Medicine for the experimental priming of the chromosomal theory of decay).
A. Kössel received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for establishing that, before the DNA storehouse, there should be choter of nitrogenous substances: adenin, guanin, cytosine and thymine.
1917 rik- Mikoloy Kostyantinovich Koltsov of the Institute for Experimental Biology.
1920 rik- the term “genome” was first proponated by the German geneticist G. Winclair.
1922 rik- N. I. Vavilov formulating "Law of homologous series"- about the parallelism in the minority of the native groups of roslin, tobto about the genetic closeness of the cich groups. Vavilov's law, having established the singing rules of formulation and allowing the transfer of a given species, not yet visible, but only possible signs (analogy with the Mendelian system).
1925 rik- G. A. Nadson, G. S. Filippov, G. Müller to carry out the first cycle of robots using radio methods of induction of mutations.
1926 rik- S. S. Chetverikov having written the article, he laid down the foundations of population genetics and the synthesis of genetics and the theory of evolution.
1927 rik- G. Müller made the mutation effect of X-ray exchange, for which in 1946 he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.
N.K. Koltsov, with the idea of matrix synthesis, became the headstone of molecular biology: “The skin chromosome is based on a thread, which is a spinal row of majestic organic molecules - gene. Mozhlivo, the whole spiral is in one giant molecule!.
1928 rik- The appearance of transformation in bacteria (F. Griffit).
1929-1930 rocky- A. S. Serebrovsky and N. P. Dubinin first demonstrated the folding nature of the gene organization; first real crocs on the way happy announcement about the fine structure of the gene.
1931 rik- Barbara McClintock showed her crossing over.
1934 rik- N.P.Dubinin and B.N.Sidorov showed a special type of effect.
B. L. Astaurov has succeeded in rejecting offspring from the Shovkopryt with unmatched eggs (one of the most recent ones in applied genetics of that hour).
1935 rik- N.V. Timofev-Resovskiy, K.G. Zimmer, M. Delbrück made an experimental determination of the size of the gene. They have given the interpretation of the gene from the position of quantum mechanics, and by the very definition of the foundation for the detection of the structure of DNA.
1940 rik- J. Bidl and E. Tatum formulated the theory “one gene - one enzyme”. (Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for 1958).
1943 rik- I. A. Rapoport, Sh. Auerbach and J. G. Robson first showed the induction of mutations by cheeky words.
1944 rik- an ear of yeri DNA. O. Everi, K. McLeod and M. McCarthy set up DNA to serve as the "speech of the gene". In their experiments with the transformation of bacteria, they have shown that the penetration of molecules of purified DNA, seen in virulent pneumococks, in the form of infection and death of infected targets, in the form of a virus, in the form of a virus in the form of a suppressor
M. Delbrück, S. Luriya, A. Hershie performed a pioneering preliminaries of the genetics of the intestinal stick and phages, for which the objects became model for genetic predictions for a lot of ten years. (Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for 1969 Rik for the introduction of the cycle of reproduction of viruses and development of genetics of bacteria and viruses).
L. A. Zilber formulated the viral genetic theory of cancer.
1946 rik- Moeller Herman Joseph (1890-1967), American geneticist after receiving the Nobel Prize for the detection of radioactive mutagenesis.
1950 rik- E. Chargaff having formulated the famous "Chargaff's rule", they say: in DNA, the number of nucleotides A is appropriate for the number T, and the number G is for the number C.
B. McClintock has shown that genetic elements are changing. For great memories (only in 1983) won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for the price of a Nobel Prize.
RIK 1951- R. Franklin and M. Wilkinson took the first X-ray picture of the DNA molecule.
Rik 1953, April 25- Francis Krik and James Watson, spiraling on the results of previous geneticists and biochimics and on the basis of X-ray structural analysis, structural model DNA in the form of subordinate spiral. In the English journal "Nature", the stinks published a small article for their model. In 1962 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine by M. X. F. Vilkins.
RIK 1956- Y. Tio and A. Levan were established, but the diploid set of chromosomes in humans was 46.
A. Kornbern discovered the first enzyme to synthesize DNA in the sample - DNA polymerase I. In 1959, S. Ochoa received a Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for advancing the mechanism of biological DNA synthesis.
RIK 1958- M. Meselson and F. Steel brought the conservative mechanism of DNA replication to the fore.
1960 rik- Inspection of RNA-polymerase by S. B. Weiss, J. Gurvitz and A. Stevens.
І. A. Rapoport about the detection of "supermutagens".
1961 rik- The robots M. U. Nirenberg, R. W. Hall and X. G. Korani decipher the "move life" - a code like the DNA contains information about the structure of blue molecules. In 1968, all three were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine, yaka Bula was awarded "For deciphering the genetic code and its function in the synthesis of bilks."
F. Jacob and J. Monod came to the notice about the development of two groups of genes - structural ones, which are responsible for the synthesis of specific (enzyme) proteins, and regulatory ones, as well as control over the activity of structural genes. In 1965, the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to A. M. Lvov, F. Jacob and J. Mono for insight into the genetic regulation of the synthesis of enzymes and viruses.
Shedding Rock in Moscow at the International Biochemistry Congress M. Nirenberg seems to have told him to “read” the word “word” in the DNA text. The chain of nucleotides is AAA (in RNA, apparently, UUU), that is, three adenines, which stand one by one. The end of the code for the amino acid phenylalanin in the bottle.
1962 rik- J. Gerdon zd_ysniv first of cloning creatures to organism (toad).
J. Kendrew and M. Perutz Bouli were awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry for the first time they deciphered the trivial structure of myoglobin and hemoglobin cells.
1965 rik- RB Khesin showing that the regulation of the synthesis of the library goes well with the inclusion and switching of the transcription of the gene.
1966 rik- B. Weiss and S. Rikhardson create a DNA-ligase enzyme.
RIK 1969- Kh. G. Koran synthesizing the first gene with a cheeky way.
1970 rik- Indication of rotary transcriptase, an enzyme, which synthesizes DNA from a complementary RNA matrix. Tse bulo zrobleno maybutnimi Nobel laureates on Physiology and Medicine (1975) G. Temin and D. Baltimor.
Vidilena persha restriction enzyme is an enzyme that develops DNA in a variety of ways. For the opening in 1978 the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to D. Natans, H. Smit and V. Arber.
1972 rik- At the laboratory of Paul Berg, the removal of the first recombinant DNA (Nobel Prize for chemistry for 1980 was awarded to P. Berg and G. Boyur). The foundations of genetic engineering have been laid.
RIK 1973- S. Coen and G. Boyur devised a strategy for the transfer of genes to the bacterial cell.
1974 rik- S. Milstine and G. Koehler developed the technology of eliminating monoclonal antibodies. Exactly ten rockets of that stench (at once with N.K. Erne) were rejected for the price of the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.
R.D. Kornberg will describe the structure of chromatin (nucleosome).
1975 rik- S. Tonegawa showing rіzne roztashuvannya genіv scho koduyut varіabelny i constancy іmunoglobulіnіv Chastain, DNA embrіonalnih i mієloїdnih klіtin scho gave pіdstavu for visnovku about peregrupuvannyah genіv іmunoglobulіnіv at utvorennі klіtin іmunnoї System (Nobelіvska Premia of fіzіologії i meditsinі 1987 p). The first cDNA cloning has been created.
E. Southern described the method of transferring DNA fragments to nitrocellulose filters, and called the method Southern blot hybridization.
1976 rik- Evidence from the creatures (on the butt of Drosophila) "striking genes", by D. Hogness (USA) and Russian brews on the choli from G. P. Georgiev and V. A. Gvozdovim.
It was adopted by the first gene-engineering company (Genentech), which is a vikorist technology of recombinant DNA for virobnitting of enzymes and lykarsk plants.
D. M. Bishop and G. Ye. Varmus were suspected that the oncogene in viruses is not a true viral gene, but a cell gene, which is a virus that has been known for a long time in the course of replication in the cells and now in winter. Bulo is also shown that he is the middle man, the cell proto-oncogene, in a healthy cell, the right role is to control the growth and the base. In 1989, offended cichs were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for the fundamental pre-development of carcinogenic genes in puffins.
1977 rik- Published methods for the assignment (sequencing) of specific DNA nucleotide sequences (U. Gilbert and A. Maxam; F. Senger, sp.). The real has emerged from the analysis of the structure of the gene as the basis for the intelligent functions. In 1980, U. Gilbert and F. Senger won the Nobel Prize for chemistry with P. Berg “For the vagomy of insertions at the establishment of the primordial DNA structure; for fundamental advances in the biological powers of nucleic acids, including recombinant DNA. "
Bacteriophage genome was sequenced φΧ174(5386 p.N.).
The sequencing of the first human gene is the gene, which is the code of the chorion somatomammotropin.
P. Sharp and R. Roberts showed how geniuses in adenoviruses (in the case of eukaryotic organisms) may have a similar exon-intron structure, and they were exposed to splicing.
K. Itakura z spivavt. to synthesize chemically the gene for somatostatin in humans and healthy synthesis of the hormone somatostatin in cells of E. coli.
Rik 1978- The Genentech Company has seen the transfer of the eukaryotic gene to the insulin into the bacterial cell, for the new synthesis of the blocks - proinsulin.
Determined on the basis of the sequence of DNA nucleotides to the virus SV40 i phage fd.
1979 rik- It has been shown that the cells are chemically transformed to replace the assets of the oncogene BAS.
1980 rik- J. Gordon s spivavt. otrimana persha transgenic misha. In the pronucleus of a dilated single-celled ambrion of Mikroin'ktsii injections, the thymidine-kinase gene of the herpes simplex virus has been shown to have the same gene of pracyu in all somatic cells of the Misha. With quiet pir transgenosis becoming the main approach for fundamental doslіdzhen, So and for the revision of practical workers of the Silskoy state-of-the-art and medicine.
1981 rik- The basis of the nucleotide sequence of the human mitochondrial DNA was determined.
a splinter of independent previous groups have seen about the detection of human oncogenes.
1982 rik- The basis of the nucleotide sequence of the bacteriophage is determined λ (48502 p.N.).
It has been shown that RNA can have catalytic powers, such as blocks.
1983 rik- Beyond the help of bioinformatics, the homology of the growth factor PDGF with the type of oncoproteins, which are encoded by the SIS oncogene, is known.
It has been shown that the development of oncogenes cooperate with the plump transformation of the clitin.
The Huntigton ailment gene is localized on chromosome 4 of humans.
1984 rik- U. McGinnis has shown homeoetic (Hox) regulatory genes, prompted for prompting the plan for the hometown.
A. Jeffries uses the method of genomic fingerprinting, in which the nucleotide sequence of DNA is used for identification of an individual.
1985 rik- K.B. Müllis's work of revolutionizing technology - polymerase lantsyugovy reaction, PLR- the most sensitive method of DNA detection so far. Tsya technology nabula wide expansion (Nobel Prize for chemistry for 1993 r).
The cloning and value of the nucleotide endowment of DNA, seen from the ancient Egyptian mummy.
1986 rik- Cloning of the RB gene - the first anti-oncogene - suppressor of fluff. Ear of the epoch of masovanogo clonuvannya gen_v plumping.
Rik 1987- Creation of the first old piece chromosomes - YAC(Yeast Artificial Chromosomes). Smells play a great role of yak vectors for cloning great fragments of genomes.
1988 rik- the project "Human Genome" of the US National Institute of Health was launched. James Watson, the Nobel Prize winner of the celebrations of the teachings, became the initiator and protagonist of this project.
Before the guide to the Committee of Science and Technology in the SRCP, the robot was pleased with the program "Human Genome", as if it had funded the Naukova Rada on the genomic program for a group with Academician A. A. Baev.
Possibility of analyzing mitochondrial DNA from even ancient samples has been shown in the pre-existing brain of people dating back 7000 years.
The method of "knockout" gen_v has been propagated.
1989 rik- T. R. Cech and S. Altman rejected the Nobel Prize for chemistry for the indication of the catalytic powers of certain natural RNA (ribozymes).
1990 rik- in the United States and in the SRCP, and sometimes in England, France, Nimechchin, Japan, China, they began to look for scientific programs on deciphering the human genome. She shared a project with the International Organization of Human Genome Organization (HUGO). Vice-President of HUGO, holding out the decilkokh rock of the Russian academician A.D. Mirzabekov.
F. Collins and L. - Ch. Tsui identified the first human gene (CFTR), which is indicative of a decline in disease (cystic fibrosis), such as straightening on chromosome 7.
V. Anderson found out the first success in the establishment of gene therapy for the treatment of ailments with low-grade immunodeficiency.
The post-genome sequence was determined to the virus of the VVPV vaccine (192 vols. P.N.).
1992 rik- E. Krebs and E. Fisher was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine for the indication of circulating phosphorylation for an important regulating mechanism of cell metabolism.
1995 rik- the company "Celera Genomics" has been assigned on the basis of the sequence of the genome of the first independent organism - the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae (1 830 137 bp)
Formation of genomics as an independent division of genetics.
1997 rik- The sequence of nucleotides in the genomes of the intestinal stick is assigned E. coli and other Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine was awarded to the American S. Pruziner for the introduction of an ailing agent of the nature of the blood, a prion, which is often associated with encephalopathy, or a "cow's tale" in a great horny bad boy.
Y. Wilmut and his fellow students were the first to clone ssavets - vivtsyu Doll.
1998 rik- All close to 3% of the human genome has been deciphered.
The main nucleotide sequence of the first edible organism is determined - the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.
In the nematode C. elegans, the mechanism of RNA-interference is known.
1999 rik- Robert Furchgott, Luis Ignarro and Ferid Murad received the Nobel Prize for the development of the role of nitrogen oxide as a signaling molecule (tobto, regulator and carrier of signals) of the heart-vascular system.
At the same time they cloned Misha and a cow.
1999 rik, breast- In the journal Nature, the article was published under the title "Nucleotide after-effects of the first chromosome of humans." We have a statistic team that has more than 200 authors, having re-deciphered one of the lowest chromosomes in humans - chromosomes under number 22.
2000 rik- The Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to A. Karlsson, P. Gringard and E. Kendel for his insight into “transmission of signals to the nervous systems”.
A pig was cloned.
2000 rik, worm- two competing teams - "Celera Genomics" and the international consortium HUGO, having shared their data, officially voiced about those who have been completely deciphering the genome of the man, the leaves of the other chornovy varieties.
2001 rik- Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to L. Hartwell, T. Hunt and P. Nurse for the development of key regulators of the clinical cycle.
2001 rik, lutiy- the first scientific publications of chornovy appeared to the variant of the structure of the human genome.
2002 rik- Increase the deciphering of the Misi genome.
The Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine was awarded to S. Brenner, R. Horwitz and J. Salston for his insight in the field of genetic regulation of organ development and programmed death.
genetics
GENETICS[Нє], -і; f.[View of Greek. genētikos - to be related to the people, to the people]. Science about the laws of decay and diminution of organisms. G. people. G. roslin. Medicna p Cosmic r
genetics(From the Greek. Génesis - walking), the science about the laws of decay and diminution of organisms and the methods of carrion by them. Regularly, from the object of development, the genetics of microorganisms, roslin, tvarin and people, and from the rivnya doslijennya - molecular genetics, cytogenetics and іn. The foundations of modern genetics were laid by G. Mendel, which led to the laws of discrete decay (1865), and by the school of T. H. Morgan, having primed the chromosomal theory of decay (1910-pp.). In the SRSR in the 20-30s. A large number of contributions to genetics were made by robots M.I. Vavilov, N.K. Koltsov, S.S.Chetverikov, A.S. Serebrovsky and I. W mid-30s rr. and especially during the 1948 VASGNIL session, the Radiansky genetics took a mountain of anti-science look by T. D. Lysenko (without a reason called him "Michurinsky vchennyam"), until 1965 zupinilo ї development of great genetics called for great The rapid development of genetics in the whole period behind the cordon, especially molecular genetics in the other half of the 20th century, allowed the structure of the genetic material to be developed, the intelligence of the mechanism of its robotics. Ideas and methods of genetics vikoristovyutsya for the solution of the problems of medicine, the Silskoy government, microbiological industry. This has led to the development of genetic engineering and biotechnology.
GENETICSGENETICS (from the Greek. Genesis - walking), the science about the laws of decay and the reduction of organisms and the methods of carrion by them. Regularly, from the object of development, the genetics of microorganisms, roslin, tvarin and people, and from the rivnya doslijennya - molecular genetics, cytogenetics and іn. Foundations of modern genetics pledged by G. Mendel (cm. MENDEL Gregor Iogann), Yakiy vіdkriv the laws of discrete decay rate (1865), and the school of T. H. Morgan, ground the chromosomal theory of decay rate (1910-i pp.). In the USSR, in the 1920s and 1930s, the robots M.I. Vavilova (cm. VAVILOV Mikola Ivanovich), N. K. Koltsov, S. S. Chetverikov, A. S. Serebrovsky and I. Z ser. 1930s, and especially during the 1948 VASGNIL session in Radiansk genetics took a mountain of anti-science look at T. D. Lysenko (unofficially named by him as "Michurinsky vchennyam"), until 1965 zupinilovyhchinyh millennials Shvidky development of genetics in the whole period behind the cordon, especially molecular genetics in the 2nd floor. 20th century, Allowed to open up the structure of the genetic material, the intelligence of the mechanism of its robot. Ideas and methods of genetics vikoristovyutsya for the solution of the problems of medicine, the Silskoy government, microbiological industry. Її reached the development of genetic engineering (cm. GENETIC ENGINEERING) and biotechnology (cm. BIOTECHNOLOGIYA).
* * *
GENETICS (from the Greek. Genesis - walking), science, vivchaє laws of decay and minor organisms.
Basic stages of the history of genetics
The understanding of the decline and the ministry was also appreciated by the ancient philosophers and politicians. Since the beginning of the day, the boules were pomilkovy, ale in the middle of them were the genial health problems. So, the Roman philosopher and sings Lukretsiy Kar (cm. Lukretsia) having written from his famous singing "About the nature of speeches" about "pershobasis" (declining inclinations), I will start the transmission from generation to generation, about those who have come to see the Possibility of change of low-key signs for a burst of callous minds. However, the truth naukove pіznannya The decline and diminution has grown over time, since there has been accumulated pointlessly accurate information about the decline of young signs in the roslin, creatures and people. The number of such precautions, carried out by practitioners, growers and brewers, especially grew in the period from the middle of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century. Naybilsh Tsinnі Danі Bully Otrimanі I. Kelreiter і A. Gertner (Nimechchina), O. Sazhre і Sh. Noden (France), T. Knight (England). At the exhibition of both species and internal species, the growth of roselin smelled a number of important factors, that the growth of agility in the offspring of hybrids was growing, and there was a sign of one P. great vidomosty about the decline of different signs among the people. However, those who are clear about the regularity of the decline and the decline right up to the end of the 19th century were not followed by one hundred vynatka. Tsim vinyat Bula chudov robot G. Mendel (cm. MENDEL Gregor Iogann) Having established in the past on the hybridization of varieties in peas, they have found the laws and understandings that have formed the basis of genetics. However, G. Mendel's robot [was introduced in 1865 on the back of a partnership of pre-old days in Brunn (Brno) and was supervised on offensive rik In the beginning of the partnership], it was estimated by the partners and, having lost 35 rockets, which did not add to the expansion in the 19th century, the announcement about the decline and the smallness. The emergence of the Evolutionary theories of J. B. Lamarck (cm. LAMARK Jean Baptiste) And because of Ch. Darwin, in the other half of the 19th century, he was interested in the problems of diminution and slump, because K. Evolution is only possible on the basis of a verdict among the living and a hundred of changes and saving at the site. There were a lot of hypotheses about the mechanism of decay, more detailed, not proponated earlier, spontaneously prominent biologists of that hour. I would like the hypotheses of the boules in the meaning of the world by the clever and nadal boules were created by the experimental preliminaries, three of them were ordered by pardoners, and the position was also confirmed. Persha belonged to Ch. Darwin, who called it "the timo-clock hypothesis of pangenesis" (div. (cm. pangenesis)). The idea of \ u200b \ u200bthis hypothesis is correct about those, that the status of the clientele is to reveal the particular particles, which will begin to develop signs of the sites. Another hypothesis, hanging by the Nimetsian botanist K. Negeli, has a false thought about those, that the skin cells can take revenge on the organisms' special words ("idioplasms"), because of the decline in the power of the organisms. The most detailed bullet third hypothesis, proponated by the German zoologist A. Weisman (cm. Weisman August)... Win tezh vvvazhav, scho in the articles of the clit є there is a special speech - nasi spadkovosti ("germ plasma"). Helped on the view of the mechanism of the cell line, Weisman identified the chain of chromosomes. The assumption about the role of chromosomes in the transmission of decaying powers to the correct one and Weismann rightly invades the forerunner of the chromosomal theory of decay (cm. Chromosomal theory of decay)... Virnimi boules are also firmly about the great significance of the economy, as the cause of the minuscule, and the reassurance of the momentous signs.
The date of the genetics was adopted in 1900 if three botanists - G. de Vries (cm. DE FRIES Hugo)(Hollandia), K. Correns (cm. Correns Karl Erich)(Nimechchina) and E. Chermak (cm. Cermak-Zeisenegga)(Austria), which carried out the process of hybridization of the roslin, sprinkled just one kind of one on the zabut of G. Mendel's robot. The stinks of hostility to the similarity of their results to the ones that were discouraged, assessed the glybin, the accuracy and meaning of the broken ones by him, and published their own data, showing how I would increase the proofs of Mendel's patterns. A further development of genetics is tied with a number of stages, the skin of the skin is characterized by strains that are transferable at that hour. Between the two stages, the meaningful world of intelligence - the stages are tightly tied one to one, and the transition from one stage to the other becomes possible, we are able to see the criterion, crumbling in the middle. The order of the most typical for the cutaneous stage of new direct, trivial quiet problems, such as bulging head earlier, and then in the same world went to another plane. Three guarded ones can divide the history of genetics into a number of basic stages.
The first stage (from 1900 to about 1912), which I will call Mendelism (cm. Mendelism), Є during the period of consolidation of Mendel's critical laws on the basis of hybridological predictions carried out in rіznih lands on growing dews and tvarins (laboratory greens, chickens, blizzards, etc.), as a result, it has fallen into oblivion, so the laws may have a universal character. The name "genetics" was developed scientifically in 1906 by the English teachings of W. Betson, and it was (cm. GEN (slump factor)), genotype (cm. GENOTYPE), phenotype (cm. PHENOTYPE), Yaki buli proponated in 1909 by Danish geneticist V. Iogansen (cm. Johansen Wilhelm Ludwig)... The order of the most characteristic robots characteristic for the whole cob stage of genetics history, as they confirm the fairness of Mendel's laws on the basis of new objects, in the same time, the rock was born and the new actions were straightforward. First, the synthesis of species about chromosomes, mitosis and meiosis from the data of genetics. Already in 1902, T. Boveri (Nimechchina) and W. Setton (USA) gained respect for the increased parallelism of chromosome dissociation and their recombination in meiosis and delayed development of chromosomes and in the reduction of chromosome changes due to
In a different way, when I’m dying, I want more vivchens at that hour of the decline signs of the young organisms themselves, transmitted from generation to generation in the context of Mendel’s laws, bullets and vignettes. Thus, the English genetics W. Betson and R. Pennett in 1906, in the preludes of sourced peas, evolved the appearance of a grave contemplation of certain signs, and the English geneticist L. Doncaster, in the meantime, in the past in the past And in that and in the first place, the seduction was a sign of the idea that Mendel's laws were not passed on. The number of applications in both types of eviction from Mendelian seduction has become less rapidly growing, but only at the beginning stage of the history of genetics has been declining, but the principle of rubbing against mendelism in the course of the development of Germany In a third, rozpchalosya vivchennya rapta win and steadily sedated changes - mutations. G. de Vries (1901, 1903), and in Russia S.N.Korzhinska (1892), had especially great merits. At the first stage of development of genetics, there was also the first try to look at the problems of the evolutionary decision in the light of the day. Three such probes, honored by W. Betson (England), G. de Fries and J. Lots (Holland), suggested the authors' praise in vikorystovuvati the basis of genetics for revising the position of Darwinism. On the impermissibility of the cichs, try again to mention in a number of critical articles by K.A.
With the help of rice, another stage of development of genetics (approx. 1912-1925) was used to develop and harden the chromosomal theory of decay. An experimental robotic American geneticist T. Morgan and his scientists (A. Stertevant, K. Bridges and G. Meller) played a role in the whole process, carried out in the period from 1909 to 1919 on Drosophila. Tsi robots, approved potim in the IN. Laboratories and at IN. Organisms have shown that genes lie in the chromosomes of the cell nucleus and that the transmission of decongesting signs, including the first ones, which, at first glance, do not contribute to the laws of Mendel, is due to the behavior of chromosomes when the status of the cells is ripe. Daniy visnovok viplivav from doslidzhen, scho was carried out by two independent methods - hybridological and cytological, which gave mutually confirmation of the results. The genetic robots of the Morgan school have shown the power of being able to map chromosomes from values precise rosetting rіznih genіv (div. Genetic pictures (cm. GENETIC CARD OF CHROMOSOM)). On the basis of the chromosomal theory of decay of the assignment and adjustment of the chromosomal mechanism of statisation. Great merits in the whole belonged, to Morgan, to the American cytologist E. Wilson. They were also honored and the most important genetics of robots, in the middle, especially the minority of the Nimetsian geneticist R. Goldshmidt. The chromosomal theory of the decay rate has been the greatest progress in genetics, and in what way has the greatest progress in genetics.
As in the first time, the development of mendelism was broadened to the extent that the expression was widened, but the dermal decongestant sign of organism was due to a special genome, then it became clear in the period when it became clear that whether such a sign was meant to be in cooperation with many others. geniv (epistasis (cm. epistasis), polymeriya (cm. polymeri)і ін.), and the skin gene in thi chi іnshіy world is injected into the development of signs (pleiotropy (cm. pleiotropy)). In addition, the health of the gene manifests itself in phenotypes to organisms (penetrance (cm. penetrance)) The first stage of the yogi stage on the phenotype (expressiveness (cm. expressiveness)) You can lie down, in some of the great world, in the inflow of the midst of the midst of the world anyway. Gen_v. The statement about the penetrance of expressiveness of the boule genes was first formed in 1925 N.V. Timofevim-Resovskiy (cm. Timofev-Resovskiy Mykola Volodymyrovych) on presentation of the results of the last few days with fruit flies.
During the same period, genetics are rapidly developing, which are important for the development of the genetic foundations of breeding, breeding and pedigree law: the development of regularities in the development of certain signs (especially important for the development of the genetic basis of H. (cm. heterosis)(The robots of American geneticists E. First and D. Jones), the advancement of the developmental genetics of cultural dewlines (the kind of prats of M. I. Vavilov, who formed the basis of the law of homologous series in the decline in fruitiness), according to the variety of Michurina in the SRCP, L. Burbank in the USA), according to the private genetics of pebbled roselin and domesticated food.
Before the period was recognized, the establishment of genetics in the SRCP, moreover, a rapid development began to grow in the 1920s, since three genetic schools were established, N.K. Koltsov was found in Moscow, Yu.A. Filipchenko and N.I. Vavilov in Leningrad.
The onset stage (approx. 1925-1940) of dressings with indications of piece mutagenesis. Until 1925, the idea was widened to reach wide, but it went down to Weismann’s hanging and especially to de Vries’s glances, about those mutations that spontaneously emerge in the body spontaneously as there were internal reasons not to lie in the future. Tsia Pomilkov's concept of the bull was developed in 1925 by the robots of G. A. Nadson and G. S. Filppov with a piece of mutations, and at the same time it was experimentally brought up by the slides of G. Möller (1927) on the flow of X-ray exchanges to the drosophila. The robot of G. Möller stimulated the numerical pre-detection of mutagenesis on different objects, which showed that it was universesal mutagenicity. The staff of the tsomu regretted the vivchennya of the laws of mutagenic diy vipromynyuvan; especially valuable boules of N.V. Timofeva-Resovskiy and M. Delbrück, who have noticed a direct frequency of inductive mutations from the dose of radioactive It has been shown that it is mutagenic during ultraviolet exchange and chemical speech. The first chemical mutagens of boules emerged in the 1930s in the SRSR V. V. Sakharovim, M. E. Lobasheva and S. M. Gershenzon. Doslіdzhennym І. A. Rappoport in the SRCP and Sh. Auerbach and J. Robson in Great Britain, in 1946 the supermutagenic etylenemin and nitrous impurity was revealed.
The pre-development in the whole region has led to a rapid progress in the knowledge of the laws of the mutational process and until the development of the nutritional process, so that a subtle gene will be consumed. In the early 1920s - the ear of the 1930s A.S. Serebrovsky and his scholars rejected the Pershian Danes, so they could use the foldable Budov gene from parts that were mutuvati all at once. Possibility of induction of mutations in a new perspective practical vicarystannya to the extent of genetics. In the rural lands, robots have been reckoned with the use of radioactive mutagenesis for the removal of wild material when new forms of cultural growth are established. In the SRSR, the initiators of such "radio selection" Bouly A. A. Sapegin and L. N. Delone.
On the whole stage, the development of genetics is straightforward, showing the role of genetic processes in the evolution. The theoretical robots of the English geneticists R. Fisher and J. Haldane, the American geneticist S. Wright and experimental S.S. Chetverikova and his spirits, for the first time, the genetic structure of natural populations was observed on decilk species of Drosophila. On the basis of the actions of the early mendelisti, as they started against the gift of naturalism, in accordance with the great factual material, accumulations from quiet genetics, vidboru, different types Minlivosti, Isolation, etc. M. І. Vavilov and his scholars have been successful in the development of the evolutionary genetics and evolution of the cultivated roses. Especially the robotic bullet of the talented sportsman G.D. I have experimentally made it possible to improve the ability to grow without the need for new types of roses and have developed one of the ways to establish new types of roslin.
The great development in the whole period was reached by genetics in the SRCP. Most of the outstanding robots, significant ones, in the other areas of genetics, bully considered important results, as recognized by the geneticists of us. Among them are robots B.L. Astaurov, who, in the past on the shovkovichny shovkormi by disintegration and genetic methods, has improved the ability to regulate the frequency of individual singing status in the offspring, M.M. Minority of karyotypes and evolutions. Widely seen in the whole period of the presenters of A. A. Sapegin, K. K. Meister, A. R. Zhebrak on the private genetics and genetic bases of the selection of roslin, robots A. S. Serebrovsky, S. G. Davidov, D. A. Kislovsky on the private genetics and genetic bases of breeding home brews. N. K. Koltsov (cm. Koltsov Mikola Kostyantinovich) Having hung up in 1927 the concept of those that a chromosome with genes is one giant organic molecule and that the creation of a decaying molecule goes through a matrix path. Those and іnshe got better, if the genetic processes started to move on to the molecular level (though it turned out that the genetic material is not a genetic material, like introducing Koltsov, but DNA).
In the early 1920s in the USSR, there was a debate about those who could succeed in changing their temperaments (they were called "prideful signs"), that is. і etc.) і to the right, for lack of exercise of organs. The knowledge about the possibility of success in modifying the bullet at that time was practically brought into the foreign genetics at the present time of the number of additional reports, albeit in the SRSR biologists, especially A. S. Smirnov, E. M. propagated. The Moscow philosophers M.B. Mitin, P.F. Supercrossing trivav kilka rokiv, wishing to pardon the theory of inheritance of the modification of the bullet is shown in a different way by the owls. geneticists N. K. Koltsov, Yu. A. Filipchenko, A. S. Serebrovsky, S. S. Chetverikova and zoologists A. S. Severtsov and I. І. Schmalhausen. It’s still important to see the important world about those, about the size and nature of the modifications, if you want the smell and not to settle down, to lie down not only in the first place, but because of the “genetics of reaction” to the body. The pomilkovo іdei of the suppression of the priestly sign was judged by the year of being born in the antiscientific glances TD Lysenko.
The most characteristic rice of the fourth stage of the history of genetics (approx. 1940-1955), the burhlivy development of the genetics of physiological and biochemical signs, amoused by the findings in the number of genetic reports of new things for the genetics of Russian The ability to reject the cichs of large offspring for the number of offspring in a short hour dramatically increased the differentiation of the genetic analysis and made it possible for genetic feces to be too much earlier inaccessible to the side.
The development of biochemical processes, which lies at the basis of the formation of decongesting signs of young organisms, including Drosophila and especially the color of neurospore, shed light on those, like the genius of the gene, winter, as it infuses Tse called to the public, crushed in the 1940s by American geneticists J. Bidl and E. Tatem, it’s worthwhile for any gene to synthesize one enzyme (the formula “one gene - one enzyme” was later specified “one gene - one "Or to find" one gene - one polypeptide ").
In the early 30s and the ear of the 40s, the robots of American geneticists M. Grin and E. Lewis in the past on drosophilia clearly brought the folding buddov and the fragility of the gene, i.e. E. (cm. Serebrovsky Oleksandr Sergiyovich).
In 1944, the American geneticist O. Eyveri, from the spіtrobіtniki in the robot, on the basis of the nature of genetic transformation in bacteria, showed that the organism has a decay potential (genetic information) to serve as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of chromosomes. Tse vіdkrittya became a forced delivery to vivchennya thin cheery budovi Shlyakhiv in the biosynthesis and biological functions of nucleic acids has become a good point in the development of molecular genetics and all molecular biology. Some important advances from the fourth period є the establishment of the fact that the infectious element of viruses is nucleic acid (DNA or RNA), and also in 1952 American geneticists J. Lederberg and M. Zinderberg (cm. transduction), T. E. Transfer of genes of the ruler by viruses, and the formation of the structure of DNA molecules (T. N. Underworld spiral) by the English physicist F. Crick and the American geneticist J. Watson in 1953. The remainder of the robot played a role in everything else. all biology.
The leaders of the progress of biochemical genetics, great successes have been reached in the genetic and cytological preliminaries of decongestant ailments (cm. SPADKOVI HVOROBI) people. As a result, a new straight forward - medical genetics.
The given development was taken away by robots from the genetics of natural populations. Particularly intensive stinks were carried out in the SRSR by N.P. Dubinin with sportsmen and S.M. Gershenzon with sportsmen, and in the USA by F.G. In the course of these events, the role of different types of mutations in evolution, the effect of natural variation, isolation and genetic drift on the genetic structure of natural populations is shown. The emergence of a number of strong chemical mutagens led to rapid progress in chemical mutagenesis. In the first place, the first highly productive varieties of cultivated grows appeared, stems on the basis of mutations, piecewise radioactivity, and the growth of stagnation with the same name of chemical mutagens; They were introduced into the practice of the method of vicarious heterosis, especially in maize and mulberry showworm.
Until the 1940s, the genetics of the genetics in the SRCP developed in general successfully and borrowed one of the provincial projects in the world. To the establishment of the Sov. biology of the potent panuvannya T. D. Lysenko and his associates, the history of the visuvannya that matured in the mid-1930s and reached its climax in 1948, genetics in the SRCP was virtually destroyed.
The notions of the stage of the history of genetics (from about the mid-1950s to the ear of the 1970s) are characterized by pre-genetic manifestations, which are important in molecular terms, as it became possible to be well-trained in genetics, as well. Galus of biology, new chemical, physical and mathematical methods.
Bulo is established that geni is a delink of gigantic polydimensional DNA molecules and the number and order of storage of storage pairs of nucleotides. The dormant zusillas of genetics, physicists and chemists, are well-informed, so that the information transmitted to the fathers on the grounds is encoded by the sequence of nucleotide pairs in the genes. For dopomoga fermentіv Won listuєtsya (transkriptsіya) a nucleotide poslіdovnіst odnonitkovih matrix molecules (іnformatsіynih) RNA scho viznachayut amіnokislotnihposlіdovnіst sintezovanih bіlkah (translyatsіya) SSMSC obumovlyuyut osnovnі vlastivostі organіzmu (y RNA vіrusіv genetichna іnformatsіya zakodovana in nukleotidnoї poslіdovnostі їh RNA). At the decryption of the genetic code (cm. CODE GENETIC), Yakiy being universesal for all living things, the main merits are due to F. Crick, S. Brenner (Great Britain), S. Ochoa and M. Nirenberg (USA).
In the case of a child, scientists have seen a number of enzymes (restriction enzymes), a strand of DNA at singing points on other fragments, and they have seen genes from the DNA of chromosomes. In 1969, in the USA, H. G. Koran, from the spivrobatniki, developed a chemical synthesis of the gene.
In 1961, the French genetics F. Jacob and J. Monot introduced the regulatory mechanisms of inclusion and activation of the robotic synthesis of genes in the intestinal stick and developed on the basis of these the concept of the operon (cm. operon), Yaka piznishe bula pidtverzhena i on in. Organisms.
As a result of the development of molecular mechanisms of mutations, great successes have been achieved in the preliminaries and in the development of new strenuous chemical mutagens ("supermutagens") and in victorious ones in selective practice. Significantly, robots poked their way into the plural. іnshih genetics areas - rozrobtsі metodіv Zahist Person of the genome od vplivu fіzichnih i hіmіchnih mutagenіv navkolishnogo seredovischa in rozkrittі molecular genetichnih mehanіzmіv regulyatsії іndivіdualnogo rozvitku organіzmіv in doslіdzhennі ranіshe malovivchenih yavisch extranuclear spadkovostі, zdіysnyuvanoї through plastid mіtohondrії, plazmіdi. Until the end of the period, a wider evolution of genetic data has been introduced in the SRCP (repaired since 1965).
At the current stage of the history of genetics, looking at the ear of the 1970s, the order of progress in all the earlier formed directly, especially intensively developed molecular genetics, which called for fundamental developments in ...
So, even in the 1960s, in the SRCR S.M. Gershenzon with spirits, who introduced the reproduction of one virus in comas, discarded new tributes for the acrimony of the fact that genetic information can be transmitted from RNA to DNA (verbal) transcription from DNA to RNA, which was previously used by a single path of transcription. In 1970, American genetics G. Temin and D. Baltimor in the past with RNA-to replace tumor-bearing viruses with tvarins brought about a vortex transcript, they discovered the molecular mechanism and saw a healthy reverse enzyme - (cm. revertase)), Coded by the viral genome. The revitalization transcription allowed the individual synthesis of highly physiologically active genes on the basis of matrix RNA and the creation of banks of genes (cm. BANK OF GENES), Yak piece synthesized, as well as natural. The majority of cich genes are also sequenced, i.e., the sequence of nucleotide pairs is designated in them. Otrimanі during sequencing danі brought up to the display of intron-exon structures of more genіv eukarіot.
Investigation of the fact that the reproduction of RNA is to remove oncogenic viruses from the virus transcripts (such viruses became retroviruses (cm. retrovirusiv)), Played an important role in the modern molecular genetic concept of oncogenesis (cm. ONCOGENESIS)- the winners of the evil pukhlin. Virusogeneticheskiy ї nature vinnennya pukhlin bula visunuta shche in the middle. 1940s rocky in Radianskiy virologist L.A. However, it was those people who couldn't explain how RNA-viruses wicked the evil chickens that I knew in ti rocky. As the verbal transcription was shown, it became clear that the viral genetic theory was stagnant to retroviruses in the same world as to DNA-oncogenic viruses. On the basis of the virus-genetic theory of evil growth, Ch. arr. based on the hypothesis of oncogenes (cm. oncogene), For the first time by the American scholars R. Huebner and J. Todaro and confirmed by the number of experimental preliminaries.
Fundamental for the development of genetics is not enough, as well as the development and advancement of mobile genetic elements (cm. MOBILE GENETIC ELEMENTS), Forward Transfers B. McClintock (cm. MAK-Klintoka Barbara) still in the early 1940s on the basis of genetic experiments on corn. Tsі danі did not become a proper rank of assessment until the quiet period, as long as in the late 1960s, robots on the genetics of bacteria did not lead to the discovery of two classes of mobile genetic elements. For ten years, D. Hogness with sportsmen (USA) and directly with them G.P. Georgiev with sportsmen (CPCP) discovered mobile genetic elements, which they named as mobile dispersive genes (MDG). It’s unsettled, it’s gotten rid of the genetic elements in some of the European economies.
Deyaky mobile genetic elements of the building will snuggle the genius and transfer them to the people. Genome miscellaneous. Such is the property of the mobile P-element of Drosophila Bula vikoristan by American geneticists G. Rubin and A. Spredling for the development of the technique of transferring any gene, which is seen for the help of others, into the nonlasticity of the myceromosome. This method has become widely used for the development of the role of regulatory genes in robotic structural genes, for the construction of musical genes, etc.
Molecular genetic background has suppressed the intelligence of the mechanism of synthesis of antibodies (immunoglobulin (cm. IMUNOGLOBULINI)). The development of structural genes, which code for constant and variable genes of immunoglobulin molecules, and regulatory genes, which do not provide for the development of structural genes, made it possible to clarify that the number of immunoglobulin molecules
Already at the cob stages, the development of genetics has been expressed about two main types of reduction: decline, or genotypic, reduction, zoomed with genetic and chromosomal mutations and recombination genes, non-hereditary, and altered As a matter of fact, it was taken to examine the phenotype of the organism as a result of the interaction between the genotype and the factors of the mid-range. However, the whole concept longed for the sutta supplementation. As early as 1928, B.L. Astaurov, at the stage of the development of the minority of some mutant individuals, signified fruit flies or a thought, but one of the reasons for the minority can be seen in the development of quiet signs (organisms). In the 1980s, rocky tsya dumka rejected additional documents. Preceded by G. Stent (USA) and V.A. individuals who wiggle in ideally one-sided minds of the middle. The tsia minlivism, obviously, is zoomed in by vidkidnye vidhilennye in the protracted internal internal and minor ontogenetic processes, ie Tim, it is possible to characterize, as "ontogenetic noise". At the link with the cym, V. A. Strunnikov, having developed the declaration about the "realizatsionnoi minlivosti", as take the fate of the formulated phenotype of the order of genotypic and modification (reports div. (cm. Minlity)).
The successes of molecular genetics have set the stage for changing the minds for the determination of new direct genetics in terms of their applied nature, the main changes in the genome of organisms in the bazhan's direction. Genetic engineering developed directly from the cich (cm. GENETIC ENGINEERING)і genetics of somatic cells ڮ Genetic engineering for genetics (one-off transfer of genes) and chromosome (one-off transfer of chromosomes and fragments). Methods of genetic engineering, the development of such technologies began in 1972 in the USA in the laboratory of P. Berg, widely used for industrial production of high-quality biological preparations. With the help of others, the de-mannered transgenic creatures (cm. Transgenic creatures)... Otriman is the growing line of the cartoplike and the dormouse, which is encoded with a spare bottle, which is encoded by the genome of legumes, the growing line of the dormouse, which is encoded by the genome of the corn. Even more promising robots, which are being conducted in bagatoh laboratories of light, on the transfer of genes of nitrogen phytochemicals from soil bacteria in the silskopodarski roslini. To roar over the lіkuvannya of spadkovyh ailments by the way of introducing a "healthy" gene into the organism of the patient to replace him with a mutant one, which is the cause of the ailment. Achievement in the technology of recombinant DNA, which made it possible to see the bagatoh geniv in. Organizmіv, as well as the expanded knowledge about the regulation of їх expressions allow to support the implementation of the process, which turned out to be a fantastic idea.
The method of chromosomal engineering allows the transplantation of the diploid nucleus of the somatic cell into the ovum from the distant nucleus into the egg cell and to inject the same egg into the female's uterus, hormonally prepared before implantation. In general, there will be born sites, genetically identical individuals, from which somatic cells are taken. Such plots can be counted as a whole individual, the number is not interchangeable, i.e., Genetically clonuvati (div. (cm. CLONING TARINES)).
Practically significant may the doslіdzhennya, which is carried out on the somatic cells of roslin, tvarin and people. Selective clitin of roslin - producers of lykar alkaloids (ruti zapashnoi, rauwolfia), in the course of mutagenesis of cych alkaloids in clintin mass is increased by 10-20 times. Selective clitin on lively midstows and the onset of regeneration of a whole range of roslin from clit callus vivedena varieties to a number of chipped roslin, stiff to growing herbicides and saline soil. By hybridization of somatic cells new speciesі canopy of roslin, the state of hybridization of which is uncomfortable or even more complicated, і by the onset of regeneration from the clit callus of the stems of the growing hybrids (cabbage - turnips, cultural potato - wild yogi, etc.)
іnshe more important than reaching genetics of somatic cells tvarin - stem hybrid (cm. hybridomi), On the basis of monoclonal antibodies, services for the development of highly specific vaccines, as well as for the vision of the necessary enzyme from the sum of enzymes.
Even more promising for practice are two molecular genetic strains - site-specific mutagenesis and the stem of antisense RNA. Site-specific mutagenesis (induction of mutations of a singing visual restriction gene in a gene of any complementary DNA, and because of the inclusion of a gene, which is mutated in the genome to replace non-mutant alelei), in the future, allows for a lack of genetic mutations in bacteria and others.
Antisense RNA, the ability to reject some of the first bullets was shown in 1981 by the Japanese immunologist D. Tomizava, who was originally in the USA, can be used for the purpose of direct regulation of the synthesis of singing bricks, as well as for the genetically produced Russian Prior to the introduction of new genetic strains, the focus was on the revision of applied enterprises. At the same time, the stench made a fundamental contribution to the definition of genome organization, the structure and function of genes, in relation to the genes of the nucleus and cell organelles and in.
Fundamentals of Genetics
Genetic predictions may be of a twofold nature: the recognition of the patterns of decay and minority and the noise of the shorts of practical victorious patterns. Those іnshe tіnсhe tіtіtіnіy tied: іshennya practical zavdan runtutsya on visnovki, otrimannyh in the presence of fundamental genetic problems and at the same time to bring actual tribute, important for the expansion and destruction of theoretical findings.
From generation to generation to be conveyed (I would like to know something about it) information about all the different morphological, physiological and biological signs, which are responsible for the realities Due to such a cybernetic nature of genetic processes, manually formulate some of the main theoretical problems, until genetics:
In the first place, the problem of obtaining genetic information. Vyvchaytsya, in some material structures of the cell, genetic information is laid, and it is encoded there (div. Genetic code (cm. CODE GENETIC)).
In other words, the problem of transmission of genetic information. Learn the mechanisms and patterns of transmission of genetic information from cell to cell and from generation to generation.
Thirdly, the problem of realizing genetic information. Vivchaєtsya, as genetic information is involved in specific signs of the body, how to develop, mutually with the inflows of the new colony middle, in this chi іnshіy world zmіnu tsіno signs.
Fourthly, the problem of genetic information. Vyvchayutsya tipi, cause that mechanizmi cich zmin.
Visnovki, otrimanі in the development of fundamental problems of slump and diminution, serve as the basis for the decision of applied problems to genetics.
Achieving genetics to pick up for a variety of types of skinning, with the most specific grade, injecting into the genotypic structure (splitting) at sites, for the most effective ways to select, for regulating the development of genetic processes of genetic processes, control ... The knowledge of that, as a way of selection, it is injected into the genotypic structure of the species population (breed, variety), allowing the vicoristovuvati in the priyomy of the selection, as it is the most efficient to change the structure to the side of the bazhan. Smart ways of realizing genetic information in the course of ontogenesis and in flux, to be repaired in the process navkolishnіm middle, Supplementing the process of thinking, how to take the most common sign of the given organism and the "smothering" of unreasonable ones. The price is more important for the improvement of the productivity of domestic food, cultural growths and industrial microorganisms, as well as for medicine, as it allows a number of people to show a number of sluggish ailments.
The advancement of physical and chemical mutagens and the mechanism of growth can be eliminated by piece-wise and unrelenting declining forms, so that the stem of polyglotted strains of brown microorganisms is grown. The knowledge of the laws of the mutational process is necessary for the development of visits to the purifier of the genome of humans and creatures from physical (Ch. Obr. Radiation) and chemical mutagens.
The success of any genetic dosage will start not only to the knowledge of the outlying laws of decline and diminution, but also to the knowledge of the private genetics of organisms, which is a robot. If I want the basic laws of genetics to be universal, they smell in different organisms and peculiarities, in the biology of propagation and budovy of the genetic apparatus. Moreover, for practical purposes nobility is needed, as geni take their lot from the sign of the given organism. Tom vivchennya genetics of specific signs of organism є obovyazkovy element of applied doslіdzhen.
Basic sections of genetics
The current genetics is presented without any problems, which represent both theoretical and practical interest. The main genetics in the middle of the distribution are the main ones: genetic analysis, the foundations of the chromosomal theory of decay, cytogenetics, cytoplasmic (extra-nuclear) decay, mutations, modifications. Molecular genetics, genetics of ontogeny (phenogenetics), genetics and genetics (genetic budgetary populations, the role of genetic factors in microevolution), evolutionary genetics (the role of genetic factors in genetics and macrovolution) are developing intensively. bacteria, virus genetics, tvarin genetics, roslin genetics, human genetics, medical genetics and many others. ін. News of genetics - genomics - vivchaє processes of formation and evolution of genomes.
The infusion of genetics on іnshі galuzі biology
Genetics of the loan in the central place in modern biology, Vivchayuchi manifestations of decline and diminutiveness, in a larger world, begin the head of the power of living beings. The versatility of the genetic material and the genetic code lies in the basis of the unity of all living things, and the versatility of forms of life is the result of the peculiarities of its realization in the course of the individual and historical development of living things. The reach of genetics is important warehouse part even in the most modern biological discipline. The synthetic theory of evolution is a better understanding of Darwinism and genetics. The same can be said about the current biochemistry, the main provisions of which are about those that control the synthesis of the most important components of living matter - protein and nucleic acids, based on advances in molecular genetics. Cytology of the head respect for the budding, reproduction and function of chromosomes, plastids and mitochondria, i.e. elements, in which genetic information is recorded. The taxonomy of tvarin, roslin and microorganisms is more and more creepy to the genes, to code the enzymes and the proteins, as well as to the direct setting of the nucleotide sequence of chromosomes for the establishment of the stage of such spores The development of the physiological processes of roslin and animals can be seen on genetic models; sprouts, with pre-pregnancy physiology of the brain and nervous system to creep with special genetic methods, lines of drosophila and laboratory scientists. The current immunology is entirely prompted by genetic data about the mechanism of the synthesis of antibodies. Achievement of genetics, in these chi іnshіy world, often even more significant, is included in the warehouse part in virology, microbiology, and embryology. With the general right, we can say that the genetics of borrowing is in the central place of the middle of biological disciplines.