Biology of the XX century: knowledge of the molecular level of life. Change your mind about your biology. advancing biology
Ti, who to stitch for reached by molecular biology
Mabut, already sounded, scho in the young nautsi, as she gained all the hardships in the third ten years of her discovery, great views come to the understanding often, to visit even more often. For only 17 years, the American James Watson and the English Francis Krik proponated the hypothesis about the budov DNA molecule, which, on the other hand, does not add to the idea, though, at that hour, there are more forms of genetics. Even sooner, downright in the fantastically style of term, Watson and Scream's thought about those that DNA does not write about all genes of organism, was brought up experimentally. Until the ear of sixty rockets, it became clear that genetic information from DNA molecules is transmitted to RNA molecules similar to them for their structure. Remain to get back to the special structures of cells - ribosomes, in which the synthesis of the protein is carried out. Creeps earlier G. Gamow (USA), F. Crick and іnshі set up a logically completed model of the genetic code. More importantly, it was said that it was said for whom genetic information is needed (synthesis of specific binaries, which means the power of life and the ability to function of life). Bulo is shown to encode the DNA molecules synthesized in Gamow's ribosomes (on Gamow's thought, three nucleotides, DNA rots), which are synthesized in ribosomes.
It is not enough to find out - to navigate the middle of even penetrating genetics, - as early as 1961, the cry and the three leaders were to "go out" with the staff about the out-of-the-way nature of the genetic code. True, before decryption, the warehouse of three triyoks, how to code amino acids, will be shown by the robot M. Nirenberg and D. Matteya, and you will feel in Moscow a bit of that same 2000 rock. First, it’s important to let it go, but in all, two and a half years later, the American M. Nirenberg and F. Leder proponyuyut the way, allowing the exact Budova of all 64 code words of the gene. Already through the history of genetics, they knew the decaying alphabet of nature.
Allegedly, our knowledge of the exact nature of the gene, the exact nature of the molecules around the information and transport RNAs has not been improved. In 1964-1965, the Halls in the USA and A. Baєv in the Russian Federation deciphered the first, the names of the molecules, which serve the genetic mystery, - the transport RNA molecules. In 1967, in the laboratory of A. Kornberg in the United States, for unsuccessful attempts to synthesize the synthesized DNA molecule of the phage 0X174. Through Rik G. Koran (Indian, who moved to the United States), in a clever zoom experiment, he synthesized the first gene for the transport RNA of others. I axis at a time, all through the pik, visions of the pure gene from the living DNA molecules!
It’s paradoxical that it’s grandiose for its idea, but it’s not an experiment by itself. Beckwith, widely seen in the field of molecular foundations for the implementation of genetic information, in the forefront of the head, as his colleagues have read, repaired the robot. It is very important for me to know the keys before the establishment of the old super-links about those, if the regulation of gene activity is being observed. According to the first, the ten itself (that is, the DNA sequence with a strictly assigned sequence of nucleotides) can be the arena of regulation. In such a way, the information of the RNA will be written off from the assets of the gene, and there will not be such a write-off from the repressed gene.
Rozdil 1. Biology - the science of life.
plan
Topic 1. Biology as a science, її accessibility, methods of reading, connection with the other sciences. The role of biology in the life and practical activity of people.
Topic 2. Signs and power of the living: clerical Budov, special features of a chemistry warehouse, exchange of words and redesign of energy, homeostasis, infusion, innovation, development
Topic 3. Basic biological organization of living nature: cellinium, organismal, population-specific, biogeocenotic
Biology is a science, її reaching, methods of knowing nature. The role of biology in the formulation of the current natural-scientific picture of the world.
Biology is a science.
Biology(View of Greek. bios- life, logos- word, science) - a whole complex of sciences about living nature.
The subject of biology and everything is to manifest life: Budova and the functions of living things, their versatility, walking and development, and also the interaction with the navkolishnim middle. Basically, the biology and science of the field in the smoldering of all manifestations of living nature on a scientific basis, in the case of a whole body attached to power, is rooted in one of the warehouses.
The term "biology" is developed in the ancestors of Nimetsian anatomists T. Roozen (1779) and K.-F. Burdakh (1800), a protest in 1802 rotsi vin buv for the first time vikoristany one form of one J.-B. Lamarck and G.-R. Treviranus for the development of science, which is vital for organisms.
Biological sciences.
In a given hour before the warehouse of biology, a number of sciences are included, which can be systematized according to such criteria: subject and overweight methods afterwards and afterwards to the level of organizing wildlife... On the subject of advancing biological science, it can be divided into bacteriology, botany, virology, zoology, and microbiology.
nerd- is a biological science, which is a complex of vivchaє roslini and roslinny pokryv of the Earth. Ecology- dissemination of biology, science about development, budova, life, expansion and interconnection of products from the middle of living, their activities and development. bacteriology- biological science, how to vivch budov and life of bacteria, as well as their role in nature. virology- biological science the main object mycologyє mushrooms, їх budova and special features of living. lichenology- biological science, lichens. Bacteriology, virology and some aspects of microbiology are often viewed in warehouses microbiology- distribution of biology, science about microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and microscopic fungi). taxonomy, abo taxonomy,- Biological science, how to describe and classify by groups of all living and living things.
Have your own dermatologist, dermatological s pererakhovannyh biological sciences, develop on biochemistry, morphology, anatomy, physiology, embryology, genetics and taxonomy (roslin, tvarin and microorganisms). biohimia- tse science about chemistry warehouse living matter, chemical processes, which are seen in living organisms and lie in the basis of their living. Morphology- biological science, which is the form and form of organism, as well as the laws of development. The wide sense of the word includes cytology, anatomy, histology and ambrology. They develop the morphology of tvarin and roslin. anatomy- a set of biology (more precisely - morphology), science, which evokes the inner budov and the form of extremities, systems and organisms as a whole. The anatomy of the roslin is viewed in the warehouse of botany, the anatomy of the creatures is in the warehouse of zoology, and the anatomy of humans is in science. physiology- biological science, as well as the processes of life of growing and living organisms, of their environment systems, organs, tissues and cells. Learn the physiology of roslin, tvarin and people. Embrology (development biology)- development of biology, science about individual development of organism, including development of the embryo.
about geneticsє regularity of slump and smallness. In Denmark, one hour the most dynamically developing biological sciences.
Molecular biology, cytology, histology, organology, biology of organisms and superorganic systems are seen for the pre-sentient level of organisation of living nature. molecular biologyє one of the youngest razdіlіv biology, science, vivchaє, zokrem, organizing decay information and biosynthesis bіlka. cytology, abo klinna biology,- Biological science, about the production of both single and single organisms. Histology- biological science, morphology, about є Budova fabrics, roslin and tvarin. Up to the sphere organology take into account the morphology, anatomy and physiology of different organs and systems.
Biology of organisms includes all sciences, the subject of such є living organisms, for example, ethology- the science of the behavior of organisms.
Biology of superorganism systems is based on biogeography and ecology. Expansion of living organisms vivchau biogeography, Todi yak ecology- the organization and function of the superorganizational systems of the ages: populations, biocenoses (spilnot), biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and biosphere.
For overhaul methods, it is possible to see a description (for example, morphology), experimental (for example, physiology) and theoretical biology.
Evidence and clarification of the laws of Budovia, the function and development of living nature in the ages of the country and the organization foreign biology. Prior to it, there is biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology, education, genetics, ecology, evolution and anthropology. evolyutsiyne vchennya vivchaє reasons, ruinous forces, mechanisms and outward laws of evolution of living organisms. One of yogo razdіlіv є paleontology- science, the subject of which is the remains of living organisms. anthropology- Distribution of foreign biology, the science of hiking and development of people as a biological species, as well as the development of populations of modern people and the laws of their relationships.
Applied aspects of biology of business to the sphere of biotechnology, selection and development of sciences. biotechnology I call biological science, which is a vivocation of living organisms and biological processes in virobnistvі. Vona widely stays in food (baking, food, brewery, etc.) and pharmaceutical industry (rejection of antibiotics, vitamins), for water purification, etc. selection- the science about the methods of the establishment of breeds of domestic food, varieties of cultivated grows and strains of microorganisms with the necessary power of people. For selection of intelligence and the very process of changing living organisms, helping people for their needs.
Access to biology is clearly related to the achievements of the other natural and exact sciences, such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science and others. For example, microscopy, ultrasound pre-detection (UZD), tomography and other methods of biology are based on physical laws, and the development of the structure of biological molecules and processes that occur in non-living systems, The stagnation of mathematical methods permits, from one side, the manifestation of a logical connection between objects, or phenomena, confirms the validity of the results, and from the latter - the modeling of the phenomenon or processes. For an hour, all the greater meaning in biology is developing computer methods, for example, modeling. In the field of biology and science, a number of new sciences have been identified, such as biophysics, biochimia, bionika and in.
Achieving biology in current versions of the taxonomy of life
At the present time of the last scientific achievements of modern biological science, the following meaning of life is given:
Reaching the biology of the last hour led to the discovery of fundamentally new straits at science. The development of molecular structural units of decay (geniv) served as the basis for the establishment of genetic engineering. For additional methods, they create organisms with new ones, including those that do not exist in nature, with combinations of subdued signs and powers. Wonderful opportunities for the development of new varieties of cultivated grows and highly productive breeds of breeds, the establishment of effective medicinal preparations, etc.
Living nature ruled itself genіnі simply and wisely. She has one self-reproducing DNA molecule, on which the program of life is written, and more specifically, the whole process of synthesis, structure and function of the basic elements of life. In addition to saving the programs of life, the DNA molecule has one more important function - self-creation, copying the decline in the number of generations, the continuity of the thread of life. Once recognized, life is self-created in the majesty of versatility, as it will neglect the sense of style, attachment to the versatile minds of the middle and evolucy.
modern biotechnology
Modern biology is an area of smart and fantastic re-creation in biotechnology.
Biotechnology is based on living organisms and biological processes in industrial production. On this basis, mastered the mass production of piece bricks, old-fashioned and old-fashioned words, beyond the powers of the authorities, over-fermented natural products. Microbiological synthesis of enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, etc. is developing successfully. From the stasis of genetic technologies and natural biological materials, biologically active speech is synthesized - hormonal drugs and information, which stimulate immunity.
The current biotechnology allows the re-creation of wood, straw, and even roslinna sirovina in the price of living houses. It includes the process of hydrolysis of the intermediate product - cellulose - and neutralization of glucose from the added salts. Otrimanium of glucose is a livable substrate of microorganisms - old fungi. As a result of living of microorganisms, a light-brown powder is established - a high-quality grubby product, which can be replaced by close to 50% of white-brown and small vitamins. A lively middle ground for yeast fungi can serve and also to revenge the tsukor roschini, like a treacle stillage and a sulphite meadow, which can be established with cellulose virobnity.
Deyaki vidi fungi convert naphtha, fuel oil and natural gas into kharchov biomasu, bagatu bilkami. So, for 100 tons of unrefined fuel oil, 10 tons of oil can be trimmed, and 5 tons of pure fuel and 90 tons of diesel burner can be removed. Stilki zh drіzhіv vyroblyaєtsya from 50 tons of dry wood or 30 yew. M3 natural gas... For the production of a given number of bricks, there would be a herd of cows with 10,000 heads, and for the purpose of the harvest, the majestic areas of green lands were required. The industry is automated, and other cultures grow a thousand times faster, less thinness. One ton of food grains will allow you to trim about 800 kg of pork, 1.5-2.5 tons of poultry, or 15-30 yew. Yayts and spares up to 5 tons of grain.
Practically storing the success of the current biology already in the Danish hour allows you to cut off the number of biologically active speeches by means of a promiscuous way.
Biotechnology, mabut, even in the closest ten years of a loan, is better than the situation, and it is possible to signify the appearance of the civilization of the XXI century.
genni technologies
Genetics is the most important area of contemporary biology.
Biotechnology was born on the basis of genetic engineering. There is a colossal number of companies at once, who are engaged in business in the whole region. Stink at everything: from licks, antibodies, hormones, grubs to technical speeches - over-sensitive sensors (biosensors), computer microcircuits, chitin diffusers for good acoustic systems. Genetic and engineering products won the light, they are safe in the environmentally friendly way.
At the cobbled stage of the development of genetic technologies, a number of biologically active spoluks were identified - insulin, interferon and in. Modern genetic technologies combine the chemistry of nucleic acids and proteins, microbiology, genetics, biochemistry and bring new insights into the evolution of problems in biotechnology, medicine and the civilian state.
Gennі technologies are based on the methods of molecular biology and genetics, tied to the straightforward designs of new ones, as long as genes do not exist in nature. The main operation of gene technology in the field of genes is the organism of a gene, which is a consumer product, as well as a group of genes and a group of DNA molecules that grow in cells of the organism.
DNA, which is stored and practiced in the nucleus, is not created only by itself. At the necessary moment of singing DNA-genes - they create their copies at a chemically similar polymer - RNA, ribonucleic acid, which, in turn, serve as matrices for the development of unnecessary organisms. The very bіlki viznachayut all the signs of living organisms. The main point of the pod_y is on the molecular level:
DNA -> RNA -> block
The central dogma of molecular biology is called so in a number of rows.
Gennі technologies brought to the market modern methods the analysis of genes and genomes, and the stench, in its own accord, - to the synthesis, to the construction of new, genetically modified microorganisms. Until the present hour, the nucleotide endpoints of the young microorganisms have been established, including industrial microorganisms, and those that are required for the advancement of the principles of organizing the genomes and for the development of the mechanisms of the European world. Industrial microbiologists, in their turn, reconsidered, knowing the nucleotide sequence of genomes of industrial strains, allow "programs" for those who smelled great.
The cloning of European (nuclear) genes in bacteria and the same principles is a method that inoculates the development of microbiology to a boisterous development. Fragments of the genomes of tvarin and roslin for their analysis tend to themselves in microorganisms. For a whole range of molecular vectors, carriers of genes, vikoristovuyu of piece-cut plasmids, as well as inert molecular devices for seeing and cloning.
For the additional help of molecular samples (DNA fragments with a singular nucleotide sequence), it is possible to start, say, if the donor blood is infected with the SNIDy virus. And the gene technologies for the identification of microbes allow the quest for all kinds of microbes, for example, in all the middle of the disease, for epidemics.
Gennіy technologies of virobnіstva vaccines are developed in two main directions. The first is the introduction of new vaccines and the introduction of a combined vaccine, so that we can stock up on decile vaccines. Another straightforward - otrimannya vaccines against ailments: SNIDu, painter, creeping ailment, and in.
per the rest of the rock Gennі technology significantly improved the efficiency of traditional strains-producers. For example, in the mushroom strain-producer of the antibiotic cephalosporin, the number of genes increased, which coding for expandase, the activity, which is responsible for the synthesis of cephalosporin. As a result, antibiotic viral growth has grown by 15-40%.
Held tsіlespryamovana robot genetichnіy modifіkatsії vlastivostey mіkrobіv, SSMSC vikoristovuyutsya in virobnitstvі hlіba, sirovarіnnі, molochnoї promislovostі, pivovarіnnі that vinorobstvі, dwellers zbіlshiti stіykіst virobnichih shtamіv, pіdvischiti їh konkurentospromozhnіst on vіdnoshennyu to shkіdlivih bakterіy i polіpshiti yakіst kіntsevogo product.
Genetically modified microbes to bring cinnamon to fight against schooly viruses and microbes and comas. for example:
- the stiffness of the growls to herbicides, which is important for fighting with the Bur'ians, to detect the fields and to reduce the yield of cultivated roses. Otrimano and vikoristovyut herb-resistant varieties of bavovnik, maize, ripak, soya, red beet, wheat and other grows.
- the stiffness of the roslin to the coma-shkidnikiv. The development of a delta-endotoxin protein is seen as the growing strains of the bacterium Bacillus turingensis. The whole block is toxic for bagatech species of coma and safe for savts, including for people.
- the stiffness of the roslin to the old ones. For the whole, genes are introduced into the genome of the honeycomb to block the multiplication of the airborne particles in the honeycombs, for example, interferon, nucleases. Otrimano transgenic roselin tyutyunu, tomatoes and alfalfa with the genome of beta-interferon.
Krym geni in the cells of living organisms, in nature there are also independent geni. Stinks are called viruses, which can cause infection. Viyavilosya, scho virus - tse not scho inshe, as packing in a white shell of genetic material. The shell is a purely mechanical attachment, like a bi-syringe, in order to pack it up, and then to inject geni, and only geni, into the cell-ruler and enter. With the help of the viral geni in the cells, you can repair the reproductions on your own RNA and your own library. All the prices are re-sowing the cell, it’s bursting, guinea, and the virus in thousands of copies starts to become infected and infects the cells.
A sickness, and innocent death victories alien, viral bilky. Yakshcho virus is "good", the people are not dead, but all life can be ill. A classic butt - herpes, a virus of presence in the body of 90% of people. Tsemiy of addiction viruses, invoke infecting people in a child's life and live in a new one permanently.
In such a rank, viruses - tse, in essence, vinaydene evolutive biological protection: a syringe, reminiscent of genetic material.
Now the butt is already in the current biotechnology, the butt of the operation is in the germinal cells of the beasts for the sake of noble goals. People find it difficult to use interferon - an important problem for Volodya's anti-virus and anti-tier activity. Interferon is violated by organisms, including human beings. Someone else's, who is not human, interferon is not possible for brothers to abuse people; Lyudina zh viroblyaє Zanadto little interferon for its vision with pharmacological purposes. Tom was thunderstruck. The gene of the human interferon buv of introductions into the bacterium great numbers The human interferon was napratsovuvala to the sedentary human gene. Infection, it is already the standard technique of stagnating in the womb. In the same way, and already to finish for a long time, genetic engineering insulin is carried out. With bacteria, however, there is a lot of folding when cleaning the required bottle of bacterial houses. To that, they can be repaired by developing, developing methods and introducing necessary genes in other organisms. Tse important, ale daє colossal perevagi. Infections, sprouts, even wider dairy products are available for the production of consumer food items for pigs and pigs. The principle here, even briefly and forgiven, is this. From food-grade eggs and insert into their genetic apparatus, for control of genes of food-grade milk, foreign genes, if necessary, to start the production of required proteins: interferon antibodies, and people need Then the eggs become late and turn into an organism. A part of the offspring started to give milk, to avenge the necessary bottle, and it’s easy to get it out of milk. To go is much cheaper, better and cleaner.
In the same way, the bully vivedeni cows, who give "zhynoche" milk (cow's milk with the necessary human bottles), are not so great for the individual vigoduvannya of human beings. And it’s a serious problem at once.
In general, it is possible to say that in a practical plan, people have reached the end of the borderline. Had to pour in on the genetic apparatus, including other organisms. A straightened, vibrant gene inflow, the so-called transgenic organisms - organisms, which be like alien geni, have come to the fore. DNA is a chain, which can be manipulated. In the last two or three ten years, methods have been discovered, for the addition of which it is possible to develop DNA in the necessary pieces and to glue it together with a certain piece of DNA. Moreover, it is possible to insert not only ready-made genes, but also recombination - combinations of children, including single-piece folded genes. Tsey directly won the title of genetic engineering. Lyudina became a genetic engineer. In his hands, in the hands of not the same thing that had been made in the intellectual world, there appeared bezmeless, gigantic powers - like the Lord God.
happy cytology
New methods, especially electronic microscopy, the collection of radioactive isotopes and high-speed centrifugation, allow the achievement of great successes in the vivchenna Budova and Clitini. In the development of a single concept of physical and chemical aspects of life, cytology is increasingly approaching the other biological disciplines. At tsyom її classic methods, Established on the fixation, farbuvanny and vivchenny clinics under the microscope, as and earlier they were of practical importance.
Cytological methods of vikoristovuyutsya, sprouts, in the selection of roslin for assigning the chromosomal store of roslinnykh cells. Such advances will give great help in the planning of experimental studies and evaluation of the results. An analogous cytological analysis is carried out on the cells of the people: it is allowed to develop deceased depressions, due to the change in the number and form of chromosomes. Such an analysis in the case of biochemical tests, for example, during amniocentesis for diagnostics of deciduous defects in the fetus.
However, it is more important to use cytological methods in medical diagnostics of malignant neoplasms. Cancer cells, especially in their nuclei, have specific snakes. Malicious approval is not a matter of fact, because it is not possible to develop in the normal process of development, as a result of the control of the development of systems, in the first place of genetics. Cytology є To complete the problem with a highly informative method of screening diagnostics of young manifestations of papilomavirus. The pre-session is held at both choloviks and women.
cloning
Cloning - the whole process, in the course of what alive istota viroblyaєtsya from a single klitini, taken from the inshoi of living things.
Cloning to get started, as a virus for a cell or organisms with these nuclear genomes, as well as in a cell for an organism. Apparently, the path of cloning can be set up whether a living organism or a part that is identical to any other part or so on .................
Biology is a system of sciences about living nature. Among the early biological sciences, some of the first, more than two thousand years, are the ones of science, such as vivchayut roslini - botanica (from the Greek. Botane - greens) - and tvarin - zoology (from the Greek. Zoon - logosvarina). Success in the development of biology for the year zoomed out the winners of the new ones directly, with which you will be known in the senior classes.
Skin organism is alive in the middlee. Navkolishnє middle-dwelling is a part of nature, where I drain alive with organisms, and take together a stench. Around us there are lifeless organisms. Tse - roslini, tvarini, grisb, bacteria. Skin z cich group vivchaє okremI am a biological science.
Significance of biology in life
people. Our hour in front of people is especially welcomeget up such big problems, like a health guard,provision of food and safety of developmental organisms on our planet. Biology, until the end of the day, which is directed to the circulation of the cichs and their nutrition, it is clear in connection with medicine, the silly statehood, the industry, the zokrem kharchovoy and leasy, etc.
You all know, well, having got sick, lyudin vikoristovuyu lyki. The majority of lykarsky speeches can be recognized from the growers or the products of the living of microorganisms. For example, the life of hundreds of millions of people saved the stagnation of antibiotics (from the Greek. Anti - prot_v - і bios). Їх vyroblyayut singing species of mushrooms and bacteria. Antibiotics drive people who are not safe to people and creatures.
Biology of the Grau has an important role in the provision of food for the peopleeat. Introduce new varieties of roselin and breeds of breeds, which allow you to trim more productsania. doslіjennya biologіvstraightened
on the preservation and improvement of soil conditions, which will prevent a lot of growth. Live organisms widely wiko
lUsed in industry. For example, sour milk, kefir, siri lyudin will take away the goodies of the variety of species of bacteria and mushrooms.
However, an active and often ill-conceived state-of-the-art spirit of the people called for a significant dovkilla words, shkidlivy for all living things, to the dignity of lisiv, long steppes, waters. Over the last century, there have been thousands of species of food, roselin and mushrooms, and tens of thousands are found on the border of the country. And even knowing one kind of organisms means a non-returnable waste for the biological development of our planet. To that, we add lists of types of roslin, food and mushrooms, which require protection (so called Chervona books), as well as
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vidіlyayut territories, de tsі vіdі taken to guard (reserves, nationalsome parks, etc.).
With such a rank, biology is a science, poklikana by its own preconceptions of transferring people in need big shutter to nature, to see the laws. That її vvazhayut the science of maybutny.
The role of biology in the success of the reappraisal is important, even in detail, in the life of the people in all developments. At the present time, science is based on such an important understanding, like evolution, clinical theory, genetics, homeostasis and energy. This function includes the development of all living things, and itself: the organisms, behaviors, as well as the introduction of each other and the connection with the new center.
Significance of biology in the life of the people of the countryThere is a sense of intelligence, how to carry out a parallel between the main problems of life of an individual, for example, health, hunger, as well as a vibration of optimal minds. On this year's day, numerical science, which has evolved from biology, has become not less important and independent. These include zoology, botany, microbiology, and also virology. Among them, it is important to see the most significant, all stinks are a complex of the most fundamental knowledge accumulated by civilization.
In tsіy oblastі knowledge pratsyuvali vchenі vchenі, takі, yakKlavdiy Galen, Hippokrat, Karl Linney, Charles Darwin, Oleksandr Oparin, Ilya Mechnikov and a lot of them. Heads of їх іх ідкриты, especially the development of living organisms, the science of morphology appeared, as well as physiology, which took in knowledge about the systems and organisms of living organisms. Genetics played a neo-estimated role in the development of declining illnesses.
Biology has become a moral foundation in medicine, sociology and ecology. It is important that science, as if it were insha, is not static, but is gradually replenished with new knowledge, as it is being transformed by the vision of new biological theories and laws.
The role of biology in happy suspension, A special
ale in medicine, without price. The most important knowledge of the ways of dealing with bacteriological and rapidly expanding global ailments. Kozhen times, if we are thinking about the food about those, like the role of biology in the bitter suspension, for the sake of the heroism of the medical biologists, they came from the planet Earth in the name of the terrible epidemias, the crazy ones, the chill for the life of people and sickness.
You can boldly sturdzhuvati, spiraling on the facts, the role of biology in the current suspension of growth is without interruption. It’s a little bad happy life without selection, genetic dosages, virobniztva of new products of food, as well as ecological dzherel energy.
The main significance of the biology of the field is that it is the foundation and the theoretical basis for many promising sciences, for example, such as genetic engineering and bionics. Їy to establish a great vidkrittya - deciphering the human genome. Such a direct, as biotechnology, bulo is also established on the basis of knowledge, shared in biology. At the present time, this very nature of technology allows the creation of safe lines for prophylaxis and treatment, as it does not start a school of organism. The result is not only triviality of life, but also of happiness.
Abstract on the subject of the concept of modern natural science
Vikonala: 1st year student of the Faculty of Economics and Economics Department. National Economy Busigina O.A.
Saratovsky State University imeni M. G. Chernishevsky
The Idea of Evolution of Living Nature at New Hour as opposed to creationism (in Latin "Torennya") is about the establishment of the light of God from nothing and the invincibility of the created light by the creator. Creation is like a glimpse of glory in the era of ancient antiquity and in the Middle Ages and in the history of culture.
The fundamental role in the eyes of the eyes of that hour was also played by the ideas of teleology - vchennya, for which everything in nature was dictated to a full extent and every development and development in the long run for the purpose. Teleology ascribes to the processes and manifestations of nature, such as being established by God (H. Wolf), or by the internal causes of nature (Aristotel, Leibnits).
Among other ideas of creation and teleology, an important role was played by the concept of intermingling the smallness of the species at the boundaries of the relatively tall children (as one single ancestor) in the midst of transformism - transformism. This concept was formulated by the prominent naturalist of the 18th century Georges Buffon in his 36-volume work "Natural History".
Transformism in the basis of its knowledge about the change and transformation of organic forms, similar to some organisms from among them. Among the preliminaries of nature and philosophers-transformists 17 and 18 there are most of the worlds also R. Guk, J. Lametri, D. Didro, E. Darvin, I. Goethe, E. Saint-Iler. All transformations were recognizable by the variety of types of organisms from the beginning of the day.
At the establishment of the idea of the Evolution organic light Often the role of the taxonomist has played - the biological science about the versatility of all existing and various organisms, about the relationship and the homeland of all small groups(Taxons). The main systems of taxonomy are the definition of specific features of the skin type and the skin taxon of a specific rank, the definition of backward powers in quiet taxa. The basics of taxonomy were laid in the works of J. Ray (1693) and K. Linney (one thousand seven hundred and thirty-five).
The Swedish naturalist of the 18th century Karl Linney was the first to find out about the binar nomenclature and staying in the distance with the piece classification of roslin and tvarin.
In 1751, the book "Philosophy of Botany" was published, in which K. Linney wrote: "The piece system of servants is not yet known to be natural. I dal: "The natural method for the rest of the meta botany".
Those who Linney call the "natural method", є by the nature of the deyak, the fundamental theory of the living is. The merit of Linney is that, through the stem of the piece system, he advances biology to the need to look at the colossal empirical material from the positions of the backward theoretical principles.
The great role in the formation and development of the idea of evolution of living nature has played a role in the sphere of education;
Preformism - in lat. "I foresee" - vchennya about the manifestation of material structures in the statues of the cells, which zoom in on the development of the embryo and signs of developing from the new organism.
Preforming vines on the basis of panuvav in the 17-18th centuries of the statement about the preformations, the organism that was formed is not preformed in the egg (egg) or spermatozoon (animalcy). The preforms (Sh. Bonny, A. Galler and іn) respected that the problem of the development of the dialect can be corrected from the positions of the backward principles of the butt, which can be perceived as a whole, without empirical messages.
Epigenesis is a price, which is important in the process of embryonic development, the actions and the last newly established organs and parts of the embryo are taken from the structureless substance of the fertile egg.
Epigenesis yak navchannya was bred in 17-18 centuries in the struggle with preformism. Epigenetic manifestations were developed by W. Garvey, J. Buffon, C. F. Wolf. Epigenetics have taken from the idea of the divine creation of the living and went to the scientific formulation of the problem of walking life.
In such a rank, in the 17-18th century, the Idea was celebrated historical changes Decaying sign of organisms, non-vortex historical development of living nature - the idea of the evolution of organic light.
Evolution - in lat. "Rozgortannya" is a historical development of nature. In the course of the evolution, in Persha, there are new views, so that the versatility of the forms of organisms is improved. In a different way, organisms adapt, so that they become preoccupied with the change of minds of the new middle age. Thirdly, as a result of the evolution of a step-by-step process, there will be a fabulous level of organization of living things: the stench will slow down and become more complete.
The transition from the announcement about the transformation of species to the idea of evolution, about the historical development of the species, allowing, in the first place, to see the process of establishing the visions from the history, as the constructive role of the factor in the historical development of the body of the new organism. historical process. The transition from transformism to evolu- tionism in biology, going back to the turn of the 18-19th century.
The first evolutive theory of the boule dates back to the two great victors of the 19th century - J. Lamarck and Ch. Darwin.
Jean Bathist Lamarck and Charles Robert Darwin set out the evolutionary theories, which are opposed to the order, the nature of the argumentation, the main reasons. The history of the lobes was likewise laid down in a fashionable way. Lamarck's theory did not reject the wide knowledge of the contenders, at that time Darwin's theory became the basis of the Evolutionary decision. In the Danish hour і Darwinism, і Lamarkіzm, we prodovzhuyut in science concepts, I want and in a reasonable way.
In 1809, Lamarck's book "Philosophy of Zoology" was published, in which the theory of the evolution of organic light was published.
Lamarck in tsіi downward giving іdpovіdі on nutrition, how to stand in front of the evolutive theory, the path of logical visnovs from the actions taken by him postulates. For the first time, I have seen two of the most important straight lines of evolution: the downward development of the simplest forms of life to all the more foldable and perfect and the formation of organisms attached to the fallowness from the middle of the "vertical" Lamarck Bouv was one of the first preliminaries of nature, which developed the idea of the evolution of organic light to the level of theory.
Lamarck, having included in his rationally new intelligence the role of the middle in the development of organic forms, interprets the meaning of the middle as an important factor, mind of the evolution.
Lamarck vvvazh, that the historical development of organisms is not vypadkovy, but a natural character and is seen in a straight line and unhealthy insight. Lamarck naming the price zalny ravnya organizing gradation.
By the ruinous power of gradation, Lamarck embraced "the pragmatic nature to progress", "pragmatic to the fullness", which is common to all organisms and was laid in them by the Creator. With the whole body of the building, it is worthy to react to any changes of the outgoing minds, pristosovatisya to the minds of the outgoing middle-class. The prisodennya Lamarck concretized in two laws:
1) actively vikorystovu
2) the changes, attached to organisms with the active vikorystanny of some organs and non-perishable ones, are taken from the offspring.
The role of the middle in the evolution of organisms is to be looked at in a rational way.
For straightforwardness in the evolutionary period, as looking at the historical development of living nature, as directly attaching organisms to the middle of living, vicorisation is the backbone name - ectogenesis (from the Greek. Words " The hunches of ectogenesis look at the evolution of the process of direct attachment of organisms to the middle and a simple change in organisms, so that organisms can be absorbed by the flow of the middle.
The beginning is explained by the evolution of organisms through only internal non-material factors ("the principle of understanding", "the strength of growth" and in.)
The aim is to look at the evolution of living nature as a process, independent from the outward minds, to be guided and regulated by internal factors. Autogenesis prototypal ectogenesis.
Autogenesis is close to vitalism - the currents of life in biology, where life is explained by the presence in the organisms of nonmaterial supernatural power ("life force", "soul", "entelechia", "archeology", "archeology") Vіtalіzm - in lat. "Life" - I will explain the life of the manifestation with a special non-material ear.
In its own way, the idea of the evolution of organic light developed in the theory of catastrophes.
The French biologist Georges Cuve (1769-1832) wrote:
"Life has more than once feuded on our land with terrible podіyа. The indiscriminate livelihoods became victims of catastrophes: one, sack of land, blasted by floods, those who inhabited the water, appeared on land at once from the rapacious days of the sea, having overshadowed on light deyaki overflows, ice for naturalists ".
Take a look, Cuve became the master of the theory of catastrophes - a concept, in which the idea of a biological evolution began as a geological processes.
The theory of catastrophes (catastrophe) is concerned with the phenomenon of the common geological and biological aspects of the evolution.
In the theory of catastrophes, the progress of organic forms is explained through the knowledge of the immutability of the environment.
In opposition to the catastrophe, the henchmen of the concept of evolution came up, as they also focused on geological problems, but they were aware of the similarity of recent and long-standing geological processes of the evolution.
Uniformism evolved amid the ample success of classical mechanics, the first for all celestial mechanics, galactic astronomy, the manifestation of the endlessness and endlessness of nature in the vastness of that hour. In the 18th half of the 19th century, the concept of uniformism was destroyed by J. Getton, C. Lyell, M.V. Lomonosov, K. Goff and I. The whole concept spirals into the manifestation of the uniqueness and uninterruptedness of the laws of nature, of the continuity of the history of the Earth; during the day of intense coups and strikes in the history of the Earth; pіdsumovannih vіdhilenі stretching out great periods in an hour; Potential turnover of manifestations and I will progress in development.
Charles Darwin at his main work "Walking in the form of a boat in the natural landscape" (1859), having published the empirical material of the current biology and selective practice, victorious the results of the lordly sailing rounds of the lake during the hour In the book "Zmіna of homemade food and cultural growers" (vols. 1-2, 1868), viclav vіn vіn vіnіklоvіddatkovіy material to the main pratsі. At the book "Walking of people and articles of the vidbir" (1871), hanging in the hypothesis of walking people from mavopodіbnyh ancestors.
At the heart of Darwin's theory is the power of organisms being repeated in a number of generations, such as the exchange of words and individual development in general - the power of decline.
The decline at the same time with the smallness of the preservation of the steel and the versatility of the forms of life and lie in the basis of the evolution of living nature.
One of the main ones to understand his theory of evolution is the understanding of "the struggle for life."
Understanding the "struggle for a sense of life" depicts the fact that the skin type of viroblya is more than individuals, but the dermal individual lives up to a grown-up body, and that the skin individual, by stretching out its life-like meanness, enters into the lifelessness of life.
Darwin has seen two main forms of minority:
Singing minlity - the appearance of all individuals of one and the same kind in the singing minds of the new middle class with the same rank of reacting on the minds (climat, soil);
Unimportant ministry, the nature of which does not show the change of minds.
In modern terminology, the ministry is called mutation.
Mutation - it is unassigned that the minority is of a declining nature. Behind Darwin, insignificant changes in the first generation will cope with the offensive. Darwin received, that the universal role in the evolution of the country is not assigned to ministry. Vona is tied up with quick and neutral mutations, or even those mutations that appear promising.
The inevitable result of the struggle for the decline and decline of organisms, for Darwin, є the process of vision and development of organisms, the most preoccupied with the minds of the middle, and died in the course of the Evolution - obscenity.
The mechanism of natural selection in nature is analogous to breeders, so that the warehouse is insignificant and unimportant individual views and the form of them in the body of the necessary attachment, as well as the various types of evidence. The whole mechanism of vibrating is not required form and set new vidi.
Over the course of Darwin's hours, the decline was represented as a kind of power to an organism, lured by it as a whole. Scottish engineer Fleming Dzhenkin has brought up the history of biology, standing against the theory of Darwin. Vіn vvvazh, scho new signs of certain individuals of this species guilty quickly know when clashed with інін, large numbers individuals.
Jenkin's list was Darwin himself, having entered into a much more serious one, having blessed Jenkin with "Jenkin's nightmare". It became clear that the apparatus for the decay rate of the formations was made by some structural and functional units - genes.
In 1865, the results were published and the results of the hybridization of varieties of peas were published, and the laws of decline were determined. The author of the cich robot - the cunning glimpse of Gregor Mendel, showed that the signs of organisms are discrete decay factors. However, the ci robots became practically unrepentant in the size of 35 rocks - from 1865 to 1900.
In 1900, the laws of Mendel Bouley were translated directly into three words - G. de Fries in Holland, K. Correns in Nimechchin and E. Chermak in Austria.
Otzhe, discrete decline in the makings of a boule appeared in 1865 by Mendel. In 1909 V. Johansen's Danish doctrine was called genes (in Greek. The words "prodigy"). Until the present hour, it has been established that the gene is the unit of decay material, is indicative of the formulation of some elementary sign, that is, the unit of decay information - is a dilenka of DNA chromosomes (or RNA in some of them).
Chromosomes are the structural elements of the cell nucleus, which are stored in DNA molecules and proteins, to replace a set of genes with decay information stored in them. The chromosomal theory of decay, was broken up in 1910-1915 in the works of A. Weisman, T. Morgan, A. Stertevant, G.J. Meller and Stverdzhu, the transfer of signs and powers to the body from generation to generation (decay) occurs mainly through chromosomes, in some form of genius.
In 1944, the rotsi American biochemists (O. Everi and in.) The Bulo was established with the power of decay in DNA. In an hour, there was a quick development of science, before the main manifestation of life on the molecular level. For the first time, a new term for the development of science is molecular biology.
Molecular biology, in the rank and in the world in the world, in the development of organisms, in the transfer of decay information, in the transformation of energy in living cells and in the structure of the head and in the structure of the nucleus
In 1953 the structure of DNA was deciphered (F. Crick, D. Watson). The deciphering of the DNA structure showed that the DNA molecule can be folded into two complementary polynucleotide lances, the dermal protrudes in the matrix for the synthesis of new analogous lances. The power of the DNA backbone will prevent the phenomenon of decay.
Deciphering the structure of DNA Bula revolutionized molecular biology, as a result of the period the most favorable views, Zagalny directly such - viroblennya about the day of life, about the nature of the decline, minivosity, exchange of words and іn.
In terms of molecular biology, bottles are even more folding macromolecules, structural elements such as amino acids. The structure of the library is set to the last and last of the amino acids. With a total of 100 vidomikh in organic chemistry Amino acids in all organisms are approved only for twenty. Until now, it is not clear why 20 amino acids can synthesize organic light. Vzagal, in whatever kind, living on Earth, there are 20 amino acids, 5 pods, 2 in carbohydrates and 1 phosphate.
Under the guidance of all the system and modern evolutionary biology, there is a synthetic theory of evolution, the principles of establishing such a boule by robots S.S. Chetverikov, R. Fischer, S. Wright, J. Holdein, N.P. Dubinin.
An elementary class of synthetic theory of evolution є population is the supremacy of individuals of one species, which takes a trivial hour to occupy the space and create for itself a great number of generations. An elementary unit of decay in the form of a gene. The decline in population change in the most direct way is growing due to the influx of such evolutive factors as mutational processes, populations of sickness, isolation, natural losses.
In such a rank, in the synthetic theory of evolution on the first plan, it is not onogenesis that is the supremacy, which is introduced into the organism from the birth to the end of life, so that it is the individual development of the organism, but the development.
The ontogenetic pattern of organizing life on the Earth is associated with the living of certain biological individuals, discrete individuals, and the population pattern is overindividual.
Population of the number of individuals of the same species, which inhabit the singular territory, more and more isolated from the species of the same species.
Vidi - tse systems of populations. Populations and views of overindividual illumination of buildings until the last hour and up to independent evolutionary development.
Populations are not genetic vidkriti systems That is why the individuals from the growing populations will clash. See є the best genetically closed systems. new species living organisms are called biocenosis.
Biocenosis - the supremacy of roslin, twarins, mushrooms and microorganisms, which populate the middle of the midst of the big men with one-sided minds, which are characterized by singing interconnections in the middle of the lakes, and so on. Sukupn_st roslin on the same day natural minds, Yaki vzamodіyut one with one і from their otochennyam, called phytocenosis or growing spilotoy. Roslinna sportsmanship (phytocenosis) - the number of species of roselin on a single-row dilyantsi, which can be used in folding connections between itself and with the minds of the naval middle (fox, step, meadow, etc.). Phytocenosis is characterized by a singular species warehouse, budding and folding. Phytocenosis is a part of biocenosis.
Biocenoses are included in the yakosti warehouse parts in still more folding systems, which represent a mutually enriching complex of living and abiotic components, interconnected between themselves by exchange of speech and energy - in biogeocenosis.
Biogeocenosis - one-sided dilyanka earthly surface with the singing warehouse of living (biocenosis) and abiotic species (ground sphere of the atmosphere, sleepy energy, soil and other) components and dynamic interchange between them (exchange of words and energy). Term proponuvav V.M. Sukachev (1940). One of the terms of the term to get used to it is synonymous with the ecosystem. Rozdil biology, a kind of vivchaє ecological systems (biocenoses, biogeocenosi), is called biogeocenology.
In the development of ecosystems, a great role is played by organisms, building independently synthesizing organic speech. non-organic spoluk... These organisms are called autotrophs.
Autotrophy - tse organisms, like synthesizing s inorganic speeches(The main rank of water, dioxid in coal, inorganic spoluk in nitrogen) everything is necessary for life organic speech, Vikoristovuchi energy photosynthesis (all green roses - phototrophy) or chemosynthesis (deyaki bacteria - chemotrophy).
Autotrophy serve as the primary biotic basis for the folding of biogeocenoses.
Organisms, which are vikoristic for the harvesting of organisms, are called heterotrophs. Before heterotrophic organisms, cholovik, all creatures, fungi, more bacteria, viruses are considered.
Autotrophic growths and microorganisms represent life in the middle for heterotrophs. A biogeocenotic complex is emerging, which can be developed.
The space, which includes the near-earth atmosphere and the outer shell of the Earth, which is assimilated by living organisms and is found in the flow of life, is called the biosphere.
The biosphere of the Earth is established as all sukupnist biogeocenoses, intertwined with each other in a circle of speech and energy. Vona is an area of active life, which will hunt the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere. In the biosphere, living organisms and the middle of life are organically tied and mutually modeled one by one, establishing an integral dynamic system. The term "biosphere" introduced in 1875 by E. Zyus. Vchennya about the biosphere as about the active shell of the Earth, in which the activity of living organisms (including people) is manifested as a geochemical factor of a planetary scale and significance, having created V.I. Vernadsky (b.1926).
The science of walking and evolving people, adopting human races and about normal options for physical buddies and people called anthropology.
Anthropology as an independent science was formulated in the middle of the 19th century. The main divisions of anthropology: the morphology of people, the idea of anthropogenesis, recognition.
The process of historical-evolutive formation of the physical type of people, the primary development of yogo labor activity, Movi, as well as suspensions are called anthropogenesis or anthroposotsiogenesis.
The problems of anthropogenesis began to appear in the XVIII century. Until the end of the day, it was revealed that people and people would have built them like that, as they created the creator. However, step by step in science, culture, suspicious property The idea of development, the idea of evolution, including a hundred percent of people and suspension, was solidified.
However, to visit Lamarck did not dare to bring to the logical conclusion the idea of the evolution of the people and people, and to deny the role of God in the walking people (in his "Philosophy of Zoology" he wrote about the only way to walk people, not only).
The revolutionary role in the history of anthropogenesis was played by Darwin's ideas. Vin wrote: "That one, who does not wonder, is like a wildcat, at the manifestation of nature, it is awkward, you can not think more, that the man was the fruit of an encircling act of creation."
Lyudin immediately і biological іstota, аnd socially, therefore, anthropogenesis does not interfere with social genesis, being by day one process of anthroposocyogenesis.
The transfer of decay information in living organisms will prevent natural organic polymers - nucleic acids. There are two types of products - deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nitrogen bases (adenine (A), guanin (G), thymine (T), cytosine (C)), deoxyribose C5H10O4 and excess phosphoric acid are included in the DNA store. Prior to the RNA store, thymine is replaced by uracil (U), and deoxyribose is replaced by ribose (C5H10O5). Monomers of DNA and RNA є nucleotides, which are composed of nitrogenous, purine (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidine (uracil, thymine and cytosine), are added, an excess of phosphoric acid and carbohydrates.
DNA molecules are found in the chromosomes of the cell nucleus of living organisms, in the equivalent structures of mitochondria, chloroplasts, in procarocytes and in the bagatoch virus. For its structure, the DNA molecule is similar to the sub-spiral. structural model DNA in the subordinate spiral was first proponated in 1953 by the American biochemist J. Watson (b. 1928) and the English biophysicist and geneticist F. Crick (b. 1916), simultaneously with the English biophysicist M. DNA radiograph, Nobel Prize 1962 RUR
The nucleotides are assembled into a lance for additional covalent links. By this rank, the lance of nucleotides is combined into one DNA molecule for all the water links: the adenine nucleotide of one lance is combined with the thymine nucleotide of the lancet, and the cyanose nucleotide. If you have a lot of adenin, you will be able to find out only timin and call him and navpaki. I'll pick up a couple of guanin and cytosine. Such bets of bases, such as nucleotides, are called complementary, and the very principle of the formation of a doped DNA molecule is called the principle of complementarity. The number of nucleotide pairs, for example, in the body of people becomes 3 - 3.5 billion.
DNA is the material carrier of decay information, as it is encoded by the last nucleotides. The growth of some types of nucleotides in DNA lances is the basis of the sequence of amino acids in the protein molecules, so that their primary structure. From a set of bricks to lay down the power of a client and individual signs of organisms. The singing of nucleotides, which is the essence of information about the structure of the cell, and the last of its development in the DNA molecule, establish the genetic code. Gene (in Greek. Genos - born, prokhodzhennya) is a unit of decay material, indicative of the formulation of some kind of sign. Win borrows a DNA molecule, which is based on the structure of a single protein molecule. The genetic makeup of a given organism is called a genome, and the genetic constitution of an organism (the proportion of all genes) is called a genotype. Deterioration of the sequence of nucleotides in DNA lantsyugu, and then, in the genotype to produce up to decaying changes in organism-mutations.
The genetic code is divovizhnі power. The most important of them is tripletness: one amino acid is encoded in three directions, it is located by nucleotides - codons, called a codon. With a whole skin codon the code is only one amino acid. Power is not the least important - the single code for all living things on Earth. The power of the genetic code at the same time because of the similarity of the amino acid storehouse of all cells is to indicate the biological identity of life, yake, mabut, the image of all living things from a single ancestor.
For DNA molecules, the power of the subordinate is characteristically important - the establishment of two identical subordinate spirales, the skin of which is identical to the subordinate molecule. This process of subdividing a DNA molecule is called replication. Replication includes the rejection of old people and the formation of new watery ties, which will unite the lance of nucleotides. On the cob of a replica of two old lancers, they repair and unscrew one kind of one. Let us follow the principle of complementarity until two old people are invited to new ones. So two identical sub-spirals are set up. Replication will ensure accurate copying of genetic information, which can be found in DNA molecules, and transmission in declines from generation to generation.
Before one of the insights into the structure of the DNA molecule, the biologists respected that they would invade the slumpy apparatus, and the more manpower science with it is possible in the 21st century. However, unaffected by the folding of the structure and power of decaying material, even in the end of the XX century. A new hallucination of molecular biology and genetics was born - genetic engineering, which is mainly the design of some fields in the design of new ones, which do not exist in nature for a single gene. It will remain for an hour that we call ourselves genetic technology. Wonderful opportunities for the development of new varieties of cultivated grows and highly productive breeds of breeds, the establishment of effective medicinal preparations, etc.
Conducted for the last hour before the session showed that the material is not old. Genetic analysis is effective in that way, if DNA molecules are to be reached by one distant one from one generation. As a matter of fact, recently the task was set to determine who should have the remains, which were known to have been entrusted to Yekaterinburg. Tsarskoy chi family, rozstrіlyanaoi in the tsom mіstі in 1918? And what about the number of human and female remains that have been taken into one grave? Aje in rocky huge wines They missed them ... The sight of the remains of the boule was sent to the English Center for Ship Medical Expertise - there has already been accumulated a great deal of gene analysis. From the cyst tissue, the gliders saw DNA molecules and carried out an analysis. With 99% accuracy, it has been established that the pre-juvenile group has the remains of a dad, mother and three daughters. Ale can it be, tse not a king's family? It was necessary to bring the dispute between the known remains with the members of the English king's house, with whom the Romanovs were tied up with close family ties. An analysis confirmed the Contestability of those who died with the English king's house, and the ship medical examination service crushed them: the remains of Ekatrinburg were found to lie tsar's family Romanovikh.
One of the wonders of nature is the unique individuality of the skin, which people live on Earth. "Do not be rude - live blameless" wrote to O. Mandelstam. We will celebrate the next hour without giving in to know the key to the unraveling of the individuality of the people. Infection seems to be that all information about the development of a living organism is "recorded" in its genome. The genetic code, for example, is derived from the genetic code of the eyes of a rabbit, but in older people it has the same structure and is based on the same DNA messages.
At the same time, there is a great deal of growth of bolsheviks, among which it is motivated by living organisms, and the divine uniqueness of the code of their generations. Zrozumіlo, in the genome of skin people, they are guilty of this region, so that they begin their individuality. Dovgiy poshuk ended in success - in 1985, in the genome of people, the super-change of the dilyanka - mini-satellite - was revealed. Smells came to the surface of the individual in the skin of the people, and with help from the distance you can see a kind of "portrait" of your DNA, more precisely, singing genes. Yak as a "portrait"? The price is more foldable for dark and light smogs, it is similar to a slightly wider spectrum, or to the keyboard of dark and light keys of the development. Similarly, smugs are called DNA-bits for analogue with finger-bits.
Biotechnology is based on living organisms and biological processes in industrial production. On the basis of the mastered mass production of single-piece bills, old-fashioned and large-scale conversations. Microbiological synthesis of enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, etc. is developing successfully. From the stasis of genetic technologies and natural biological materials, biologically active speech is synthesized - hormonal drugs and information, which stimulate immunity.
For the improvement of the production of products, the consumption of piece speeches is required, for the replacement of the bottles that are necessary for the life of living organisms. The managers of those who have found the most recent biotechnology in the past hour will be held without one-of-a-kind lively talks, for the reason of the Authorities of the transcending natural products.
The current biotechnology allows the re-creation of wood, straw, and even roslinna sirovina in the price of living houses. It includes the process of hydrolysis of the intermediate product - cellulose - and neutralization of glucose from the added salts. Otrimanium of glucose is a livable substrate of microorganisms - old fungi. As a result of living of microorganisms, a light-brown powder is established - a high-quality grubby product, which can be replaced by close to 50% of white-brown and small vitamins. A lively middle ground for yeast fungi can serve and also to revenge the tsukor roschini, like a treacle stillage and a sulphite meadow, which can be established with cellulose virobnity.
Deyaki vidi fungi convert naphtha, fuel oil and natural gas into kharchov biomasu, bagatu bilkami. So, for 100 tons of unrefined fuel oil, 10 tons of oil can be trimmed, and 5 tons of pure fuel and 90 tons of diesel burner can be removed. Stilki zh drіzhіv vyroblyaєtsya from 50 tons of dry wood or 30 yew. M3 of natural gas. For the production of a given number of bricks, there would be a herd of cows with 10,000 heads, and for the purpose of the harvest, the majestic areas of green lands were required. The industry is automated, and other cultures grow a thousand times faster, less thinness. One ton of food grains will allow you to trim about 800 kg of pork, 1.5-2.5 tons of poultry, or 15-30 yew. Yayts and spares up to 5 tons of grain.
Deyaki vidi biotechnology include wandering processes. Alcoholic fermentation is found in the old town of Babylon - about 20 sorts of beer were brewed in ancient Babylon. It’s a lot of money back to eat alcoholic beverages. One more more important than reaching in microbiology - rozrobok in 1947 p. Two rocks are based on glutamic acid, and by way of biosynthesis for the first time to eliminate amino acids. Until the present hour, a variety of antibiotics, vitamins and alcohol additives have been applied to food products, growth stimulants, bacteriological goodies, and to help them grow up and down.
With the help of recombinant DNA, the synthesis of enzymes was extended and the scope of biotechnology was expanded by ourselves. There was a possibility of robustness without enzymes in case of randomly unreasonable conditions. As microorganisms, they process glucose into rich brown chemical products. However, roslinna syruvina is often used in the quality of food products. For fermentation, it is possible to vikoristovuvat biomasu at the viglyadіvіdіvі sіlskiy and lіsovogo gospodarstv. However, you won’t be able to take revenge on the lignin, which is the conversion of biocatalytic splitting and fermentation of cellulose components. This natural biomas needs to be cleaned first from the lignin.
The given development of biotechnology is linked to the modification of the genetic apparatus of living systems.
Gennі technologies are based on the methods of molecular biology and genetics, tied to the straightforward designs of new ones, as long as genes do not exist in nature. Genni technologies were born on the ear of the 70s of the XX century. as a method of recombinant DNA, called gene engineering. The main operation of gene technology in the field of genes is the organism of a gene, which is a consumer product, as well as a group of genes and a group of DNA molecules that grow in cells of the organism. At the cobbled stage of the development of genetic technologies, a number of biologically active spoluks were identified - insulin, interferon and in. Modern genetic technologies combine the chemistry of nucleic acids and proteins, microbiology, genetics, biochemistry and bring new insights into the evolution of problems in biotechnology, medicine and the civilian state.
The main meta genic technologies are the type of DNA, the codes for the creation of the library with the given authorities. Recent experimental methods allow for the analysis and identification of DNA fragments and genetically species of cells, in which the required DNA is introduced. Above biological objects, there are many chemical operations, which are the basis of genetic technologies.
Gennі technologies led to the development of modern methods for the analysis of genes and genomes, and the stench, in its own way, - to the synthesis, to the point of constructing new, genetically modified microorganisms. Until the present hour, the nucleotide endpoints of the young microorganisms have been established, including industrial microorganisms, and those that are required for the advancement of the principles of organizing the genomes and for the development of the mechanisms of the European world. Industrial microbiologists, in their turn, reconsidered, knowing the nucleotide sequence of genomes of industrial strains, allow "programs" for those who smelled great.
The cloning of European (nuclear) genes in bacteria and the same principles is a method that inoculates the development of microbiology to a boisterous development. Fragments of the genomes of tvarin and roslin for their analysis tend to themselves in microorganisms. For many in terms of molecular vectors - carriers of genes - vikoristovuyut piece by piece of plasmids, as well as inert molecular devices for seeing and cloning.
For the additional help of molecular samples (DNA fragments with a singular nucleotide sequence), it is possible to start, say, if the donor blood is infected with the SNIDy virus. And the gene technologies for the identification of microbes allow the quest for all kinds of microbes, for example, in the middle of the disease, for epidemics.
Gennіy technologies of virobnіstva vaccines are developed in two main directions. The first is the introduction of new vaccines and the introduction of a combined vaccine, so that we can stock up on decile vaccines. Another straightforward - otrimannya vaccines against ailments: SNIDu, painter, creeping ailment, and in.
Over the last few years, genetic technology has significantly improved the efficiency of traditional producer strains. For example, in the mushroom strain-producer of the antibiotic cephalosporin, the number of genes increased, which coding for expandase, the activity of which is responsible for the synthesis of cephalosporin. As a result, antibiotic viral growth has grown by 15-40%.
Held tsіlespryamovana robot genetichnіy modifіkatsії vlastivostey mіkrobіv, SSMSC vikoristovuyutsya in virobnitstvі hlіba, sirovarіnnі, molochnoї promislovostі, pivovarіnnі that vinorobstvі, dwellers zbіlshiti stіykіst virobnichih shtamіv, pіdvischiti їh konkurentospromozhnіst on vіdnoshennyu to shkіdlivih bakterіy i polіpshiti yakіst kіntsevogo product.
Genetically modified microbes to bring cinnamon to fight against schooly viruses and microbes and comas. Put the axis on. As a result of modification of quiet roslin, it is possible to increase its strength to infectious ailments. So, in China, stiyki up to viruses tyutyun, tomatoes and liquorice are already growing on great areas. From transgenic tomatoes, steaks to bacterial infections, potatoes and corn, steaks to fungi.
In the present hour, transgenic growths are growing promiscuously in the USA, Argentina, Canada, Austria, China, Spain, France and the Great Countries. With skin rock to increase the area under transgenic roslin. It is especially important to pick up transgenic growths in the lands of Asia and Africa, for the most part I can grow from among the Burians, ailments and schoolchildren, and in the same hour the most marriages.
Wouldn't genetics be widely applied to the practice of genetics before the appearance of no kind of epidemiologists who got sick and some of the wrong heritage? The practice of demonstrating that the genetic technology from the cob and the development of the donina, that is, for more than 30 years, did not bring any negative legacy. Moreover, it was found that all the recombinant microorganisms, as a rule, are less virulent, that is, less sickly, less viral forms. However, the biological phenomena are such that they cannot be said about them because of the goodness of the story: there will not be a lot of them. It’s more correct to say this: the quality of the meal is even smaller. And here, it’s insanely positively important, in fact, that all see the microorganisms is strictly regulated, and the meta of such regulation is changing the way of expanding infectious agents. The transgenic strains are not guilty of the revenge of the genes, as the transfer to the first bacteria can give a certain effect.
When a lamb was born, it does not genetically grow out of an individual, which gave a somatic clitin. May be, somatic clitina of people is healthy to generate a new povnotsinny organism. Cloning people is a chance for mothers of children for quiet, who are happy for without; tse jars of kin and fabrics, spare organizers are quiet, and come into unpopularity; it’s decided, the ability to transfer to the comers is not half of their genes, but the entire genome - to create a child, who will be a copy of one father. At the same time, it’s time to ask about the legal and moral aspects of the given possibilities. Podibnogo kind of arguments in 1997-1998 pp. boules of re-distribution of mass information dzherela in bagatokh regions.
For accepted in nautsi viznachennya, cloning is more precisely the creation of that living object in the number of copies. Edited copies may be identical to the fallback information, so that the same set of generations will be produced.
In a number of people who are cloning a living organism, they do not have a special reason and must be taken to an ordinary procedure, if they want it to be not so simple. Geneticists will reclaim clones, if the stench has gotten used to it, it will multiply for the additional parthenogenesis - a stateless path, without early delay. Naturally, those individuals that develop from the same type of clone can be genetically identical and can be a clone. In our country, very smart robots, for some kind of cloning, are able to make the clones of the shovelworm appear to be highly productive in rolling the shovel and to be glorified in the whole world.
However, the move about іnshe clonuvannya - about the rejection of exact copies, for example, a cow and a record milk yield, or a genial people. The axis with such a clone and і win і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і і.
Still in the distant 40th rock of the XX century. Russian embrologist G.V. Lopashov having broken the method of transplantation (transplantation) of nuclei into toad ovum. At the heart of 1948, I have revised the article in the "Journal of Foreign Biology", written behind the materials of my experiments. However, on the yogo meeting in the crescent of 1948, the session of VASGNIL was summoned, the party confirmed the uninterrupted panuvannya in the biology of Trokhim Lisenko (1898-1976), and the role of Lopashov was brought up to take new chromosomes in the individual development of organisms. Lopashov's robot was kicked out, and in the 50s of the XX century. American embryologists Briggs and King have vikonalized a bit of history, and a priority for the past, as they often walked in the history of Russian science.
In the fierce 1997, I saw about those who, in the laboratory of the Scottish cooked Ian Wilmut in the Russian Institute (Edinburgh), developed an effective method of cloning scientists and on this basis was born Doll. Talking accessible by my, Vivtsya Doll is not a mother - she gave an ear of mother's clit, yak to take revenge on a subset of generations. Seemingly, somatic cells of grown-up organisms replace a new set of genes, and statues of cells - only half. When half of them are conceived - father and mother - come together and populate a new organism.
How was the inspection carried out in the laboratory of Jan Vilmut? A few oocytes were seen, tobto ovules. They fought for the Scottish Chernomord breeds, and at the same time put in a living room the center of the livestock at a temperature of 37 ° C and carried out an operation of enucleation - a visible vlast nuclei. The onset of the operation lied in the unhealthy ovules with genetic information from the body, which should have been cloning. For most of the donor's diploid cells appeared, that is, cells that carry a new genetic makeup, as the boules were taken from the milk layer of the growing vaginal growth. Of the 236 successful survivors, only one was born - Dolly the sheep was born, which did not carry the genetic material of the matured age. The problem of cloning people began to be discussed in the midst of new information.
Deyaky vcheni vvazayut, but in fact it is unwise to turn the nuclei of somatic cells into the cob, but the stench could have prevented the normal development of these eggs, in which they were transplanted, and at the time of donation, the date was exact. If you find all the problems and give in to the virginity and all the difficult podolati (I want it to be small), the cloning of people cannot be respected by the scientifically grounded. Apparently, it is possible that they transplanted ovules from foreign donor nuclei to thousands of foster mothers. Even to a few thousand: the yield is low, and the advancement of that, shvidshe for everything, will not give in. And all in order to get rid of one people I want to live a copy of how people are, do not know the genia. And what about the embryos? And even more and more part of the zagine in the womb of the mother, or grow into virodki. Identify sob - thousands of individual virods! Tse bulo b zlochin, that tsilkomnaturally cleanse the law superficially immoral. As soon as there are sauces, then it is more rational to carry out further education on transgenic breeds of twins, gene therapy, etc.
Nature yak ob'єkt vivchennya of natural knowledge is foldable and versatile in its manifestations: post-rus... If the knowledge about her grows ever wider, and the area of obtaining yogo with a borderless field of ignorance is reimagined on a majestic circle, filled with scientific ideas - the seeds of natural knowledge. Children from them, with their steams, make their way into a colossal knowledge and give life to new ideas, new natural - scientific concepts, and to lose the development of science in history. Х change the mind more thoroughly. This dialectic of development is natural - scientific knowledge navkolishny svitu.
Karpenkiv S.Kh. Concept of modern natural science M. 2003r.
Vernadsky V.I. Speech and biosphere M. is alive 1999r.
Ichaso M. About the nature of living things: mechanisms and sensations. M 1994r.