Peredelskiy L.V., Korobkin V.I., Prikhodchenko O. Ecology - file n1.doc. Peredelskiy, lev dmitrievich - Karachov Rozdil I. Regional ecology

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Laureate of the competition of the Ministry of Education Russian Federation according to the branch of the new generation of natural sciences (Moscow, 1999). The first Russian teacher in the discipline "Ecology" for the students of the Higher Education Institution, who are beginning to develop technical sciences.
The author of the spellings is in accordance with the official sovereign sanctuary standard and the program recommended by the Ministry of Education of Russia. Win is stored in two parts - theoretical and applied. In the five of these, the main provisions of the home ecology, including about the biosphere, the ecology of the people, were revealed; anthropogenic inflow into the biosphere, problems of ecology and protection of the environment. In general, the student is in a new ecological, noosphere svitoglyad form.
Designed for students chief pledges... The teacher is also recommended for teachers and middle school students, lyceums and colleges. Wine is necessary for a wide range of engineering and technical workers, as they take care of the food of the rational nature conservation and protection of the new community.

In front of you is one of the new generation of teachers in the discipline "Ecology" for students of the first basic pledges, who are looking for technical strains and specialties professional education, Writings by all fakhivtsy in the field of environmental sciences and past folding and trivial paths of the competitive selection.

Daniy pidruchnik є in one of three opportunities from the discipline "Ecology" of the All-Russian competition of pidruchniks of a new generation in the fundamental fundamental natural disciplines. A whole competition for the first time in the history of the food school of Russia in connection with the reform of the structure and the change of the program of education of the books by the State Committee of the Russian Federation (in the other - the Ministry of Education of Russia) and held during 1995-1998. on the basis of the Russian University of Friendship of Peoples.

ЗМІСТ
Shanovny reading! ten
Peredmova 11
Entry. ECOLOGIA. SHORT LOOK TO ROSE 13
§ 1. Subject and department of ecology 13
§ 2. History of development of ecology 17
§ 3. Significance of environmental protection 21
Part I. THEORETICAL ECOLOGY
Rozdil first. ZAGALNA ECOLOGIYA 26
Chapter 1. Organism as the whole system is alive 26
§ 1. Equivalent biological organization and ecology 26
§ 2. Development of the body as a living system 32
§ 3. Systems of organisms and biota of the Earth? 6
Chapter 2. Relationship to the Organizm and the Center 43
§ 1. Understanding about the middle ground, the beginning and the ecology of the bureaucrats 43
§ 2. Basic statements about the adaptations of organisms 47
§ 3.Limituyuchim bureaucrat 49
§ 4. The meaning of physical and chemical factors of the middle in the life of organisms 52
§ 5.Educational bureaucrats and their role in the life of the Roslin and the root community 70
§ 6. Resources of the living isot yak ecological factors 77
Chapter 3. Populations 86
§ 1. Static indicators of populations 86
§ 2. Dynamical indicators of populations 88
§ 3. The triviality of life 90
§ 4. Dynamics of growth of the population size 94
§ 5. Ecological strategy of vision 99
§ 6. Regulation of population density 100
Chapter 4. Biotic spirit 105
§ 1. Species structure of biocenosis 106
§ 2. The spacious structure of the biocenosis 110
§ 3. Ecological nisha. Vzaimovіdnosіnі organіzvіv in bіocenosis 111
Chapter 5. Ecological systems 122
§ 1. Concept of the ecosystem 122
§ 2. Production and distribution in nature 126
§ 3. Homeostasis of the ecosystem 128
§ 4. Energy of the ecosystem 130
§ 5. Biological productivity of ecosystems 134
§ 6. Dynamics of the ecosystem 139
§ 7. Systemic reason and model of vecology 147
Rozdil other. Vchennya about BIOSPHERE 155
Chapter 6. The biosphere - the global ecosystem of the earth 155
§ 1. The biosphere is one of the Earth's shell 155
§ 2. Warehouse and between the biosphere 161
§ 3. Circuit of rivers in nature 168
§ 4. Biogeochemical cycles of the most important life-giving speech 172
Chapter 7. Natural ecosystems of the earth and the chorological units of the biosphere 181
§ 1. Classification natural ecosystems biosphere on a landscape basis 181
§ 2. Land biomi (ecosystems) 190
§ 3. Freshwater ecosystems 198
§ 4. Marine ecosystems 207
§ 5. The integrity of the biosphere as a global ecosystem 213
Chapter 8. The Basic Directions of the Evolution of the Biosphere 217
§ 1. Vchennya V. І. Vernadsky about the biosphere 217
§ 2. Bioriznomanittya biosphere as a result of the її evolyutsії 223
§ 3. 0 regulating infusion of bioti on the navkolishn center 226
§ 4. Noosphere yak new stage of the evolution of the biosphere 230
Rozdil third. EKOLOGIYA PEOPLE 234
Chapter 9. Bio-social nature of people and ecology 234
§ 1. Lyudina yak biological species 235
§ 2. Population characteristics of people 243
§ 3. Natural resources of the Earth is a factor that will limit the life of people 250
Chapter 10. Anthropogenic ecosystems 258
§ 1. Lyudin and ecosystems 258
§ 2. Silskogospodarsky ecosystems (agroecosystems) 263
§ 3. Industrial-Miski Ecosystems 266
Chapter 11. Ecology and Health of People 271
§ 1. Infusion of natural and ecological factors on the health of people 271
§ 2. Infusion of social and ecological factors on the health of people 274
§ 3. Hygiene and health of people 282
Part II. APPLIED ECOLOGY
Rozdil quarters. Man-made into the biosphere 286
Chapter 12. The main types of anthropogenic injections into the biosphere 286
Chapter 13. Anthropogenic melt into the atmosphere 295
§ 1. Zabrudnennya atmospheric drink 296
§ 2. Main dzherela obrudnennya atmosphere 299
§ 3. Ecological inheritance of the atmosphere 302
§ 4. Ecological inheritance of the global atmospheric pollution 307
Chapter 14. Anthropogenic flooding into the hydrosphere 318
§ 1. Obrudnenya hydrosphere 318
§ 2. Ecological heritage of obstruction of the hydrosphere 326
§ 3. Consumption of underground and surface waters 331
Chapter 15. Anthropogenic flooding into the lithosphere 337
§ 1. Injection on the ground 338
§ 2. Inflow to girski breedі їх massivi 352
§ 3. Injection to nadra 360
Chapter 16. Anthropogenic fusion on biological spirits 365
§ 1. The meaning of a fox in nature and life of people 365
§ 2. Anthropogenic flooding on a foil and in a roslinny ugrupovannya 369
§ 3. Ecological inheritance of people flowing into the roslinny light 372
§ 4. The meaning of food in the biosphere 377
§ 5. The infusion of people on the creatures and the cause of their death 379
Chapter 17. Special views flowing into the biosphere 385
§ 1. Obstruction of the middle by the entrances of the virobnity and living 385
§ 2. Noise injection 390
§ 3. Biological problems 393
§ 4. Infusion of electro-magnetic fields and vipromynyuvan 395
Chapter 18. Extreme Flow to the Biosphere 399
§ 1. Infusion of the mass slaughter 400
§ 2. Infusion of technogenic ecological disasters 403
§ 3. Spontaneous dashing 408
Rozdil p'yaty. EKOLOGICHNA ZAKHIST TA KHORONA NAVKOLISHNOGO SEDVISHCHA 429
Chapter 19. The basic principle of protection of the natural environment and rational environmental protection 429
Chapter 20. Engineering and Ecological Zahist 437
§ 1. Principles of direct engineering to the navkolishnogo center 437
§ 2. The norm of the quality of the navkolishny center 443
§ 3. Zachist atmosphere 451
§ 4. Zachist hydrosphere 458
§ 5. Zakhist lithosphere 471
§ 6. Zachist biotic ugrupovan 484
§ 7. Zachist navkolishnogo center of special types of injections 500
Chapter 21. Fundamentals of environmental law 516
§ 1. Dzherela environmental law 516
§ 2. State organizations for the protection of the navkolishnogo center 520
§ 3. Environmental standardization and certification 522
§ 4. Ecological examination and assessment in pouring on the navkolishnє center (OVNS) 524
§ 5. Environmental management, audit and certification 526
§ 6. Understanding about ecological risik 528
§ 7. Ecological monitoring (monitoring of the new community) 531
§ 8. Environmental control and community environmental protection 537
§ 9. Ecological rights and obligations of the big people 540
§ 10. Legal evidence for environmental law enforcement 543
Chapter 22. Ecology and Economics 547
§ 1. Ecological and economic area of ​​natural resources and labor 549
§ 2. License, agreement and license for environmental management 550
§ 3. New mechanisms of financing the protection of the midst of the midst 552
§ 4. Understanding about the concept of steel development 556
Chapter 23. Ecology suspicious properties 560
§ 1. Anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. Formation of a new ecological property 560
§ 2. Ecological education, culture and culture 567
Chapter 24. International sports in ecology 572
Section 1 of the International Objects of Protection of the New Colonies 573
§ 2. The basic principle of the international environmental education 576
§ 3. Participation of Russia in the international environmental education 580
Ecological Manifest (for M.F. Reimers) (substitute visnovka) 584
The main understanding and value in the area of ​​ecology, protection of the midst of the midst and nature of the environment 586
Shower 591
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE 599

(Document)

Maglish S.S. Zagalna ecology (Document)

n1.doc

Name: CD Ecology: electronic handler. Pidruchnik for VNZ

pik: 2009

form: KnoRus

ISBN: 539000289X

ISBN-13 (EAN): 9785390002896

the text of taking from the electronic handler

Rozdil I. Regional ecology

JOIN. Ecology and a short look at the development

1. Subject and department of ecology

We will broaden the values ​​of ecology and science discipline in advance: ecology science, how vivchaє think about the sense of living organisms and interrelationship between organisms and the middle of life. The term "ecology" (in Greek. warehouse biological sciences, in close connection with the other natural sciences - chemistry, physics, geology, geography, soil science, mathematics.

The subject of ecology is sukupnist or the structure of links between organisms and the middle. Head office of vivchennya in ecology  ecosystems, that is, a single natural complex, established by living organisms and the middle of the senses. In addition, the area of ​​competence includes vivchennya okremikh types of organisms(Organizmenny rіven), їх populations, i.e., the number of individuals of one species (population-specific species), the number of populations, i.e., biological groups  biocenoses(Biocenotic rіven) і biosphere as a whole (biosphere rivn).

The main, traditional, part of the ecology of the biological science є home ecology, yak vivchaє zagalny laws are responsible for whether they are living organisms and the middle (including people).

The warehouses of the foreign ecology see the following main sections:

 autecology, a preliminarily indivisual sound of the environment surrounding the organism (vidi, individuals) with the navkolishnim middle;

 population ecology(Demoecology), which includes the establishment of the structure and dynamics of populations of species. Population ecology is looked at as a special section of autocology;

 syncology(Biocenology), how vivchaє interrelationship of populations, sports goods and ecosystems with the middle.

For all chicks directly with the head є vivchennya living in the midst of the midst of life, and the prejudice to them to stand in front of them is important to the biological power  to vivify the laws of adaptation of organisms and their spirits from up to the midst of life, self-regulation, the strength of ecosystems and the biosphere, etc.

In viclade vische rozumni zagalnu ecology is not terribly called bioecology, if you want to be biocentric.

From the point of view of the factor, the hour of ecology is differentiated by Historical and Evolutionary.

In addition, ecology is classified for specific objects and in the middle of preliminaries, i.e. E. Development ecology of tvarin, ecology of roslin and ecology of microorganisms.

The role and meaning of the biosphere will remain for an hour as an object of ecological analysis without interruption. Especially great importance in the current ecology comes to the problems of intercourse between people and the new natural environment. Hanging out on the first plan of distributions in ecological sciences is tied to the sharp strengths of the mutually negative influx of people and the middle, to the growing roles of economical, social and moral aspects, in connection with the negative

In such a rank, modern ecology is not surrounded by only the framework of biological discipline, but when the head of the world treats tvarin and roslin from the middle, it is to be transformed into the interdisciplinary middle science, when people are faced with problems. The relevance and richness of the whole problem, the viciousness of the aggravated ecological situation on the scale of the whole planet, led to the "ecologization" of the richness of natural, technical and human sciences.

So, for example, on the basis of ecology with small galuzy, there is a great deal of knowledge about the development of such new directions, such as engineering ecology, geoecology, mathematical ecology, civilian ecology, space science and ecology.

Apparently, there is a wider illumination of the term "ecology" itself, and the ecological idea in the process of evolving the interaction of human suspension and the nature of knowledge is the main one.

Environmental problems of the Earth as a planet to develop intensively global ecology The main object of vivchennya is the biosphere, which is the global ecosystem. In the Danish hour, there were some special disciplines, yak social ecology" human suspension nature ", і її part  ecology of people(Anthropoecology), in how to look at the interaction of people as a bio-socialist with navkolishnim light.

The current ecology is closely tied to policy, economy, law (including international law), Psychology and pedagogy, so as only in alliance with them, it is possible to complement the technocratic paradigm of misdirection and virobiti a new type of ecologic testimony, which fundamentally changes the behavior of people in relation to nature.

From the scientific and practical point of view, the whole podil of ecology is grounded in theoretical and applied.

theoretical ecology open the zagalny laws of the organization of life.

Applied ecology vivchaє mechanizmi ruinuvannya biosphere people, ways to prevent the process and development of the principle of rational management of natural resources. The system of general environmental laws, rules and principles will form the scientific basis of applied ecology.

When you look at you, you can understand and directly follow, as the development of ecology is even more promising.

For the theoretical plan, the following must be referred to:

 development of the foreign theory of the efficiency of ecological systems;

 vivchennya ecological mechanisms of adaptation to the middle;

 continued regulation of the number of populations;

 development of biological development and mechanisms of education;

 advancement of production processes;

 Preceding processes that run through in the biosphere with the help of improvements;

 modeling the stand of ecosystems and global biospheric processes.

The main applied staff, as ecology is guilty of Virishuvati in the early hour of the day:

 Forecasting and assessing the potential for negative inheritance in the new natural environment in view of the great energy of the people;

 polіpshennya yakostі navkolishny middle;

 Optimization of engineers, economics, organization-legal, social solutions for securing an ecologically safe steel development, in the most ecologically dangerous areas.

strategic staff In ecology, the development of the theory of interaction of nature and suspension on the basis of a new look, which looks like a human suspension as a part of the biosphere is not visible.

In the present hour, ecology has become one of the most important natural sciences, and, as there are a lot of ecologists, the very existence of people on our planet will continue to progress.
2. A short look history of development of ecology

In the history of the development of ecology, three main stages can be seen.

First step the birth and formation of the ecology of science (up to the 60s of the nineteenth century). At the end of the stage, data has been accumulated about the interconnection of living organisms with the midst of their life, the persuasion of science was scared.

At the ХVII-ХVIII century. Ecological views became a significant part of the history of biological descriptions (A. Reaumur, 1734; A. Tremblay, 1744). The elements of the ecologic approach were taken up in the early days of the Russian clergy І. І. Lepekhin, A.F. Middendorf, S.P. Krashennikov, French brewer J. Buffon, Swedish naturalist K. Linney, Nimetskiy watered H. Yeager, etc.

In the same period J. Lamarck (17441829) and T. Malthus (17661834) foreshadowed people about the possible negative inheritance of people flowing into nature.

Another stage registration of the ecology in the independent galuz knowledge (since the 60s of the nineteenth century). The ear of the stage was marked by the arrival of the robots of the Russian clergy K.F. Rul'e (1814-1858), N.A. lost their meaning until the present hour. Nor is the American ecologist Y. Odum (1975) vvazha V.V.Dokuchaev one of the forerunners of ecology. In the early 70s XIX century Nimetsky hydrobiologist K. Mebius (one thousand weight hundred seventy seven) to introduce the most important understanding about biocenoses as about the regular organisms in the singing minds of the middle.

Unapproved additions at the development of the fundamentals of ecology outside Ch. Darwin (1809-1882), which is the result of the main officials of the organic society. Those who Ch. Darwin called "the struggle for the vision", from the evolutive positions can be interpreted as the relationship between living things, the abiotic middle ground and the middle, that is, E. Beast.

Nimetsky biologist-evolutionist E. Haeckel (18341919) was the first to understand the field of biology and is even more important, and called it ecology (1866). At his capital pratsi "Primary morphology of organisms", he wrote: wines like these creatures and roslin, with which wines directly come into contact. In a word, ecology  tse vivchennya of all foldable interests, which Darwin called “minds, who will spawn the struggle for iznuvannya”.

Yak self-styled science ecology was left behind on the ear of the 20th century. At the same time, the American doctrine of Charles Adams (1913) expands on the first information on ecology, publishes the most important publicity and information (W. Shelford, 1913, 1929; Ch. Elton, 1927; R. Hesse, 1924; K. Raunker ін.). The greatest Russian impression of the twentieth century. V. I. Vernadsky svoryuє is fundamentally about the biosphere.

U 30s and 40s The ecology has grown up to grow up as a result of a new approach to the development of natural systems. A companion to A. Tensley (1935), having seen an understanding about the ecosystem, and, for a little while, VN Sukachov (1940) grounded a close understanding of biogeocenoses. Slid to mean that the era of the vichiznyanoy ecology in the 20-40s. I was one of the most advanced in the world, especially in the halls of fundamental retail outlets. In the tsei period, there were such vidatnі vchenі, as Academician V.I. Vernadsky and V. N. Sukachov, and also great ecologists V. V. Stanchinsky, E. S. Bauer, G. G. Gauze, V. N. Beklemishev, A. N. Formozov, D. N. Kashkarov and I. N.

The other half of the twentieth century. in conjunction with the hardships of the navkolishny middle-class and the rapid empowerment of people pouring into nature ecology nabuvak of special significance.

fix third stage(50-і pp. XX century  until the present hour)  the transformation of ecology into a comprehensive science, I'm going to leave Lyudin middle ground. From the supreme biological science, ecology is transformed into “a significant cycle of knowledge, having absorbed the divisions of geography, geology, chemistry, physics, sociology, culture theory, economics ...” (Reimers, 1994).

The current period of the development of the ecology of dressings with the names of such great foreigners as Y. Odum, J. M. Andersen, E. Pianca, R. Ricklefs, M. Bagon, A. Schweitzer, J. Harper, R. Whitacker, N Borlaug, T. Miller, B. Nebel i іn. In the middle of the last few days in bulk І. P. Gerasimova, A. M. Gilyarova, V. G. Gorshkova, Yu. A. Izrael, K. S. Losev, N. N. Moiseev, N. P. Naumova, N. F. Reimers, V. V. Rozanova, Y. M. Svirizheva, N. V. Timofova-Resovskiy, S. S. Schwartz, І. A. Shilova, A. V. Yablokova, A. L. Yanshina and I.

The first nature protection acts in Russia are from the IX-XII century. (For example, the star of the laws of Yaroslav the Wise "Ruska Pravda", in which boules the rules were established to protect the Mislivs and Bortnichi guessed). At XIVXVII Art. on the old cordons of the Russian state, they fended off the "confused foots", the stately protected territories, on some bully fences of the state cuttings. The history has saved more than 60 environmental decrees of Peter I. In the new age, the restoration of the most important natural resources of Russia has sprung up. In 1805 r in Moscow, a partnership of viprobuvac in nature was founded. In the end of the XIX  ear of the XX century. Vinnik Rukh for the protection of natural objects of nature. Among the most prominent pupils of V. V. Dokuchaev, K. M. Bera, G. A. Kozhevnikov, І. P. Borodina, D. N. Anuchin, S. V. Zavadsky and the first boules scientific fundamentals protect nature.

Ear of nature conservation Radiansky state from the low first decrees, correcting from the "Decree on the Land" from the 26th of January 1917, which laid down the foundations of nature conservation in the land.

Itself in the whole period will arise and will be eliminated by law as the main type of nature protection activity  protection of nature.

In the period of the 30-40-s, at the link with the exploitation of natural resources, victories, head rank, growth of the scale of industrialization in the country, the protection of nature began to look like "one system of entry, vikoristannya of natural funds of the land "(with the resolution of the First All-Russian Z'yzdu for the protection of nature, 1929).

In such a rank, in Russia, a new kind of nature conservation activity is given. rational vikorystannya natural resources.

U 50-i pp. for the development of productive forces in the country negative infusion people to nature zoom in on the need for the establishment of more one form, as they regulate the interaction of the suspension and nature,  protect the midst of people... At the end of the period the republican laws on the protection of nature will be adopted, as they say the complex idea of ​​nature not only as before the dawn of natural resources, but until the middle of the life of the people. It is a pity that the words of I. V. Michurina about the need not to take mercy from nature.

U 60-80-e pp. Practically uryadovy adopted uryadivi decree about the protection of nature (about the protection of the Volga and the Urals, the Azov and Black Seas, Lake Ladozkoe, Baikal, industrial towns of Kuzbass and Donbas, the Arctic Uzbek). Trivial in the process of the establishment of environmental legislation, we saw land, water, lisov and іnshі codes.

The ruling and adopting the laws, as the practice of zasosuvannya has shown, did not give the necessary results  the toothy anthropogenic inflow into nature was trivial.
3. Significance of environmental awareness

Ecological education is not only a science knowledge in the field of ecology, but an important Lanka ecologic vikhovannya maybutnіkh fahіvtsіv. Tse transferє of the attachment of the high ecological culture, the building of a high-quality approach to natural riches and іn. In other words, among the fahivts, in our vipad of the engineering and technical profile, a new ecological testimony and misdirection can be formulated, the essence of which is that people are part of nature and the preservation of nature  the cost of saving people.

Ecological knowledge of the need for skinny people, how the world of bagatokh generates misters about the end of the old people of the middle, for which the need to live a beautiful place, develop the perfect harmony, to achieve the most productive people have lost their strength, Ale tsya harmony is not merciful, as people are better adjusted one to one and, more so, if they go out of it, well, it's a pity, it’s a misnomer. Yak rightly attributing the American ecologist B. Commoner to the ear of the 70s: “The whispers of the turns, whether it’s a problem, tied to a new middle-class, is to produce an everlasting truth, that the root cause of the crisis is not in nature, as people , and in that, as the stench interconnects one with one ... and, nareshti, the world between people and nature is guilty of overcoming the world between people. "

In this hour, spontaneous development is responsible for nature to become insecure for not only building objects, territories of lands, etc., and for all people.

It’s worth explaining to you that people are tightly bound by nature to their walks, material and spiritual needs, albeit, on the view of those organisms, and the links have taken such scales and form, so it is possible to bring (and) to practice! replenishment of the living cover of the planet (biosphere) in life daily suspension, Putting people on the edge of an ecological catastrophe.

Lyudin, the zavdyaki given to you by nature rose, prudently to take care of your “comfort” and to think of the middle of life, prudently to be independent from the kind of physical factors, for example, from the climate, as a result of the unsettled life for the sly Reshti a living light!) і t. To that, Lyudin is persh for everything to be seen from the other sights of those, who interrelate with nature through the culture, that is, people as a whole, growing, spreading to the Earth cultural center directors of transmission from generation to generation of their labor and spiritual awareness. Ale, as meaning K. Marx,  “culture, as it develops spontaneously, and does not go by yourself ... I’ll let myself grow empty”.

Zupiniti spontaneous development can be deprived of knowledge about those how to manage them, and in the case of ecology, the knowledge of the guilt of “being overwhelmed by the masses”, at least a large part of the ...

Ecological knowledge allows you to understand all the bitterness of war and death among people, and it is not just the death of other people, but civilization, which will lead to an extravagant ecological catastrophe, to the death of people. It means that people and all living things live more peacefully from the ecological minds. Lyudin is herself to blame and will be pragmatically ecologically illumined.

Ale bulo would unfairly be the whole ecology "near" only people. The subjugation of the natural environment is more dramatic for the life of the people. Ecological knowledge allows you to be intelligent, how people and nature and only the same purpose and the declaration about their panuvannya over nature to complete the primordial and primitive.

It is ecologically well-educated to prevent spontaneous delusions from being brought to life. In the future we will fight against ecological barbarity, and if in our land there are more people like this, then it’s like a normal life on our sites, having become more savage in nature, due to the greedy insistence of a “good life” »Options in relation to nature and suspension.

Russia, the land of the SND, has a great respect for environmental education. The Interparliamentary Assembly of Powers, a member of the SND, adopts the Recommendation Legislative Act on the Environmental Education of the Population (1996) and other documents, including the Concept of Environmental Education.

Ecological education, as it appears in the preamble of the Concept, in order to develop and strengthen the stereotypes of the behavior of people, based on:

1) economy of natural resources;

2) zapobіgannya unjustified obrudnennya navkolishnogo middle ground;

3) conservation of natural ecosystems everywhere;

4) training up to the norms of behavior and mentality accepted by the international spirit;

5) the formulation of relative readiness to active special participation in healthy environmental visits and feasible financial considerations;

6) Conducting the implementation of environmental protection activities and development of the United Environmental Policy in the SND.

In the Danish hour, the breaking of ecological laws is possible to zupiniti, only when you have gone to the right place. ecological culture the skin member of the suspension, but it is possible to grow, first for everything, through education, through the education of the basics of ecology, which is especially important for the people in the field of technical sciences, in the first place for the engineers-prospectors, machinery and equipment Tsei is a handyman of values ​​for a wide range of students who are looking for technical strains and specialties of universities. For the idea of ​​the authors, it was guilty of the date of the main statement of the head directly in theoretical and applied ecology and the establishment of the basis of the ecological culture of the Maybut fachivts, based on great intelligence of the greatest value harmonious development of people and nature.
Control food

1. What is ecology and what is the subject of vivchennia?

2. Who has the development of theoretical and applied ecology?

3. The stage of historical development of ecology and science. The role of the vicarious ones in the development and development.

4. What is the nature protection activity and the main views?

5. What needs a dermal member of the administration, including engineering and technical practitioners, ecological culture and ecological education?

Chapter 1. Interaction with the Organism and the Middle
1.1. Heads of organization of life and ecology

Gene, celline, organ, organism, population, breeding (biocenosis) Ecology vivchaє Rivni biological organization from organisms to ecosystems. In the її basis, as and all biology, lie theory of evolutionary development organic light of Ch. Darwin, based on the statements about natural good... For a spoken vigilante, it can be represented as follows: as a result of the struggle for the future, I see most of the organisms attached to it, so that I can forget the vision, my own offspring, as it is possible for certain types of organisms to be forgotten As soon as you think about changing, then you see organisms with signs that are more friendly for new minds, conveyed to them in recessions, etc.

The materialistic statements about the walking life and the evolutionary theory of Ch. Darwin can be explained only from the positions ecology science... It is not vipadkovo, but following Darwin's clues (1859) the term "ecology" by E. Haeckel (1866) appeared. The role of the middle, i.e., physical factors, in the evolution and development of organisms are not victories of summaries. The middle of the bull is named abiotic, and warehouses around the territory (food, water and in.) and factor (temperature and in.) abiotic components, on vidminu vid biological components, We live in speech with representations. Vzaєmodiyuchi with abiotic middle, i.e., with abiotic components, the stench is functional systems, De live components and middle ground  "One central organism".

In fig. 1.1 the meanings of the food components are presented in the wiglyad Rivniv Biological Organizations biological systems, which are developed according to the principles of organizing and the scale of manifestations. Smells represent the architecture of natural systems, when there are fewer subsystems, large systems are built, and they themselves are larger systems.

Small. 1.1. The spectrum of biological organisms (according to Yu. Odum, 1975)

The power of the skin edge is much more foldable and more versatile than the front. Alle, the price can only be explained in part on the basis of the data about the power of the front line. In other words, it is not possible to transfer the power of the skin offensive biological іvnі to the powers of the outside warehouse and more low rіvnіv, as well as to the fact that it is not possible to transfer the power to the sour and water from the authorities. This is what I call emergent the systemic whole has special powers, which are not tied down to the subsystems and blocks, but also the sum of their elements, which are not united by systemic connections.

Ecology vivchaє to the right part of the "spectrum" shown in fig. 1.1, v. E. Equivalent biological organization from organisms to ecosystems. In ecology organism is seen as an integral system, mutual modality from a zonishnim middle, both abiotic and biotic. In the whole vipad in our field, you will eat such a sukupnist, yak biological species, to be stored from other individuals, yak, tim not mensh, yak INDIVIDUUMI there is one kind of one. The stench is just so dissimilar, like a dissimilar one to another, can be attributed to one species. Ale all їkh ob'єdnu One for all gene pool , I will take care of the building until it is multiplied in the middle of the view. It is not possible for offspring from individuals of different species, to visit close-spore, united in one generation, not even talking about families and larger taxa, which unite more “distant relatives”.

Oskilki kozhen okremiy individ (individual) has its own specific features, then it was placed until the middle, before the inflow of the rank and file. For example, if the temperature is adjusted, a part of individuals can not be vitrimated and suppressed, but the population of all species can be seen behind the rakhunok of other individuals, which are more prone to increased temperatures.

population, in itself Zagalom viglyadі, Tse sukupn_st individuals of the same species. Genetics chirp to finish yak obovy moment  the building of the society before self-creation... Ecologists, I will look at the insults and special features, I will look at the insularity in the space and in the hours of analogous properties of the same kind (Gilyarov, 1990).

Isolation in space and in the hours of analogous populations depicts the real natural structure of life. The real natural center has a lot of species of roses in the majestic open spaces, which is why it is seen as a species in the boundaries of the territory. Deyakі z ugrupovan to finish the good to get up to the minds of the world, thus establishing titles ecotype. A small group of individuals tied together genetically, can give an ear of a great population, and moreover, it can take a trivial hour. They also take the adaptability of individuals to the abiotic middle, internal species competition and in.

However, spontaneous single-species groups and settlements in nature are not sane, and we can call them right to the groups, which are stored with bagatokh species. Such ugrupovannya are called biological alcoholic breeding, or biocenoses.

biocenosis There is a large number of socially slow populations of different species of microorganisms, roslin and tvarin. The term "biocenosis" was for the first time stashed by Mebius (1877), in which a group of organisms in an oyster jar was introduced, i.e., the earliest production of organisms is surrounded by such a "geographic" space, in this kind of between the lines of the line. Nadal tsey space bulo named biotope, on the next step of the mind, think about the middle ground in the singing territory: food, water, soil and substrates for the hot breeds. Itself in the midst of the midst of the midst there is a sense of growth, food light and microorganisms, so that it becomes a biocenosis.

Zrozumіlo, but the components of a biotope are not just to understand the order, but to actively interconnect with themselves, to create a singing biological system, as Academician V.N.Sukachov calling biogeocenosis. In the whole system, the supremacy of abiotic and biological components can be "... my own, special specificity of the modes" and "singing type I will exchange speech and energy among them, and those who are Russians of nature, and I imagine myself to be "(Sukachov, 1971). A diagram of the biogeocenosis is shown in Fig. 1.2. Tsia vіdoma scheme of V.N.Sukachov was scored by G.A.Novikov (1979).

Small. 1.2. Scheme of biogeocenosis according to G.A. Novikov (1979)

The term "biogeocenosis" by V.N. Uyavlennya Sukachov was laid in the base biogeocenology the whole scientific directly in biology, how to deal with the problems of interaction of living organisms with themselves and with the new and abiotic middle class.

However, earlier, in 1935, by the English botanist A. Tensley, he introduced the term "ecosystem". ecosystem, According to A. Tensley,  "The number of organisms' complexes with a complex of physical factors of their development, i.e., E. Chinnik's miscellaneous in a wide sense". Substantial values ​​і from the leading ecologists  Y. Odum, K. Villi, R. Whitacker, K. Watt.

A number of addictions to the ecosystem approach to the Entry include the terms "biogeocenosis" and "ecosystem"  synonyms, zokrem Y. Odum (1975, 1986).

However, a number of Russian leaders do not subscribe to the idea of ​​thinking, bachachi singing ideas. However, it is not very important that they do not imply the sense of the suttas and put a sign of equanimity among all the witnesses. It is more necessary that the term “ecosystem” is widely used in the sumy sciences, especially in nature conservation.

Especially important for the vision of ecosystems Mayut trophіchnі, that is, the food is connected to one and the same organisms, which regulates the entire energy of biological groups and all ecosystems as a whole.

First for everything, all organisms to be divided into two great groups: autotrophs and heterotrophs.

autotrophic organizmi vikoristovuyt inorganic dzherel for his own sense, by the very same organizing organic matter from inorganic. Prior to such organisms, photosynthesizing green vegetation of land and water, blue-green algae, and bacteria for chemosynthesis and inn.

Oskilki organizmi to complete the development of various types and forms of eating, then the stench enters into folding trophic relations between themselves, and we themselves know the most important ecological functions in biological spirits. Some of them vibrate products, they live, the third transform them into an inorganic form. Їх are named by way of example: producers, consumers and reductions.

producers Product brewers, as all the organisms can be harvested, such as terrestrial green dewlines, microscopic sea and fresh water growths, so that organic speeches from inorganic spores can be violated.

Heterotrophy Tse of living organic speeches. Among them there are є creatures that live only roslinna їzhu  herbaceous(Cow) for eating only the meat of the meat of our beasts  meat(Hijaki), as well as ti, hto live і those y іnshe  "All"(Lyudina, witch).

Reducenti (destructor)  clerks. The stench turns speech from dead organisms into non-living nature, expanding organisms to simple inorganic spoluks and elements (for example, to CO 2, NO 2 and H 2 O). Turning into the ground or near the water center of the biological elements, the stench, by ourselves, complete the biochemical cycle. There are more microorganisms and fungi in the main bacterium. Functionally, reductions are of the same type of consumer, which is often referred to as microconsiderations.

A.G. Bannikov (1977) plays an important role in the processes of unfolding dead organisms and in soil-forming processes.

Microorganisms, bacteria and large folding forms in the fallow area from the beginning of the aerobni, that is, how to live with the manifestation of sourness, i anaerobic live in an acid-free environment.
1.2. Organism is alive, the whole system

Organism  be-yak alive іstota. Він відрізняєть від inanimate nature the singing supremacy of the authorities, the authorities of only living mothers: clerical organization; exchange of words on the conductive role of proteins and nucleic acids, homeostasis organism  self-renewal and adaptation of the steel of the th inner middle. We live to the organisms of the entrapped ruh, the infusion, the growth, the development, the multiplication and the decline, as well as the adherence to the minds. adaptation.

Vzaєmodiyuchi with abiotic middle, organism vistupaє yak integral system, Which includes all great low rivn biological organization (liva part of the "spectrum", div. fig. 1.1). All parts of the organism (geni, cells, cells of tissues, whole organisms and their systems) are components of pre-organisms. The change of some parts and functions to the body will inevitably pull in the change of some parts and functions. So, in the minds of the change of mind, as a result of the natural selection, the priority development will be recognized as a result of the natural selection. For example, the root system is tense in the dry zone (kovil) of the roslin, or the "slap" as a result of the reduction of the eyes of the creatures, which can be found in temryav (crit).

Alive organisms volodyut exchange rechovin, abo metabolism, at the same time, there are no chemical reactions. The application of such reactions can serve dikhannya, yake shche Lavois and Laplace were honored with a kind of miner, or photosynthesis Sleepy energy is ringing behind the help of some green grass, and as a result of the further processes of metabolism, all the growing grows, and as a result of the further processes of metabolism.

In the process of photosynthesis, during the process of photosynthesis, in addition to sleepy energy, carbon dioxide and water become vicious. sumarno хімічне Рівняння viglead photosynthesis as follows:

de C 6 H 12 O 6 is a rich energy molecule of glucose.

Almost all of the dioxide in carbon (CO 2) comes from the atmosphere and on the day the fall is directed down to the roses, the photosynthesis starts and the muslin appears. Dikhannya  is a zorotny process, the flow of CO 2 at night is directed up the hill and dehumidification.

Deyakі organіzmi, bacteria, building up organіchnіnі sіrki і for the production of іth components, for example, for the production of sіrki. Such processes are called chemosynthesis.

The exchange of words in the organism is taken up only for the participation of special macromolecular blood cells  enzymes, Scho vikonuyut the role of catalysts. Skin biochemical reaction in the process of living the body is controlled by a special enzyme, which, in its turn, is controlled by a single gene. Zmіna gene, called mutation, to produce up to a change in the biochemical reaction in the way of a change in the enzyme, and in the case of an unstable one, then up to a specific stage of the metabolic reaction.

However, it is not only enzymes that regulate metabolic processes. їм add co-enzyme great molecules, some of them are vitamins. vіtamіni special speeches, which are necessary for the exchange of speeches of all organisms  bacteria, green roses, food and people. Vіtamіnіv іtamіnіv veda to ailments, so as not to form the necessary co-enzyme and to ruin the exchange of words.

Nareshty, for a number of metabolic processes, special chemical words are required, hormones, they are violated in small missions (organs) to the body and are delivered to the other mission by blood, for additional diffusion. Hormones are welcome in any body that is responsible for the chemical coordination of metabolism, nervous systems creatures and people.

On the molecular genetic basis, it is especially sensitive to infuse foreign words, ionizing and ultraviolet radioactivity. The stench wicks the destruction of the genetic systems, the structure of the kinetin and the attracting of the enzyme systems. Everything should be done to make people, creatures and roslin, drive and bring about the lowering of species of organisms.

Metabolic processes go through with a growing intensity by extending the life of the body, all the way to its individual development. Tsei yogo path from birth and until the end of life is called ontogeny. ontogenesis It is the supremacy of the last morphological, physiological and biochemical re-creation, which is known for the body for the entire period of life.

ontogeny includes spist organism, that is, the improvement of the mass and the growth of the body, and differentiation, Т. Е. In organisms with statues of reproduction, ontogenesis is repaired from the delayed cellini (zygote). With a stateless reproduction  from the establishment of a new body, the path of the mother's house, or the specialized clerk, the path of the brunquan, and also of the rootstock, bulbi, tsibulin, etc.

Skin organism in ontogenesis goes through a number of stages of development. For organisms, how to multiply by way of development Zarodkov(Embryonic), post-embryonic(Postembryonal) and period of development mature organism... The embryonic period ends with the emergence of the embryo from the egg shells, and in the livestock - to the people. more important ecology for creatures, ma pochatkovy stage of post-embryo development, scho counter by type direct connection for the type metamorphosis, Pass the larval stage. For the first one, there are some steps in the development of the older person (curl  hammer і etc.) larvae, Yaka іsnu і grunts independently, persh nіzh will transform into a grown-up person (pug-head  toad). In a number of comas, the larval stage allows you to survive the unpleasant hour of fate (low temperatures, dryness, etc.)

In ontogeny, roslin developed development, development(To form a grown-up organism) і old(Weakening the biosynthesis of all physiological functions and death). The main peculiarity of ontogeny of growing dews and large amounts of algae is stapleless (sporophyte) and state (hematophyte) generation.

The processes and manifestations that occur on the ontogenetic stage, i.e., at the stage of the individual (individual), are also necessary and even the Sutta Lanka function of all living things. The processes of ontogenesis can be destroyed at any stage of the chemical, light and heat obstruction of the middle and can lead to the appearance of viral or even to the end of the ontogenesis at the stage of development.

The recent ontogenesis of organisms was brought together by a stretch of trivial evolution, as a result of їх historical development  phylogenesis. Not a vague term in E. Gekkel in 1866, so as for the purpose of ecology, it is necessary to reconstruct the evolutive revision of food, growth and microorganism. We are engaged in science  phylogenetics, based on the three sciences  morphology, embryology and paleontology.

The interconnection between the development of the living in the historical-evolutive plan and the individual development of the organism was formed by E. Haeckel at the viglyad biogenetic law : Ontogenesis of any organism є short and short repetition of phylogenesis of a given species. In other words, a spat in the womb of mother (among the workers and in.), And then, having come to light, individ in my own development I repeat in a fast viglyadі the historical development of its kind.
1.3. Zagalnaya characteristic of biota of the Earth

In a given hour, there are more than 2.2 million species of organisms on Earth. Systematics їх become more and more smoother, I want the main її kistyak to become more and more invisible from the hour of the beginning to be seen as Swedish honored by Karl Linnaeus in the middle of the 17th century.

Table 1.1

The list of taxons of systems and empires of cell organisms

There are two large groups of organisms on the Earth, in the middle of the small organisms, there are many more glibs in the middle of the organisms: procarioti(Procaryota) represented by the kingdom so called shots, before which bacteria and blue-green algae In cells such as mute nuclei and DNA in them does not appear as cytoplasm by any membrane. eukaryoti(Eucaryota) are represented by three kingdoms: tvarin, mushroomi roslin The cells of the nucleus and the DNA are adhered to the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane, fragments are found in the very nucleus. Mushrooms have seen a kingdom in the vicinity, so as it has appeared, the stench cannot only be carried over to the roselin, ale may, just, like amoeboid two-strand of the simplest, that is, E.

However, such a growth of living organisms on the chotiri of the kingdom has not yet formed the basis of the pre-emptive initial literature That is, with the help of this material, I take the traditional classifications, behind the bacteria, blue-green weeds and mushrooms, for the wedges of the lower roses.

The entirety of Russian organisms in a given territory of the planet, be it in detail (region, district, etc.) flora, and the number of creature organisms  fauna.

Flora and fauna of the given territory in Sukupnost is stored biota. Ale tsi terms mayut and nagato are more widespread. For example, it seems that the flora of quinta dews, flora of microorganisms (microflora), microflora of soils and so on. to assess the interaction of all living organisms and the middle, or, say, injecting "soil biota" into the processes of self-control and in. Bottom aim Zagalna characteristic fauna and flora are classified up to classification (div. Table 1.1).

procariotiє found organisms in the history of the Earth, as a result of the life of the Precambrian, that is, close to a million rock in that. In a given hour, there are close to 5000 views.

Most popular shots є bacteria , І in Danish hour of the most recent in the biosphere of microorganisms. Їх size storage from ten parts to two or three micrometers.

Bacteria are widespread everywhere, a little more in soils - hundreds of millions per gram of soil, and in black soils there are two milliards.

The microflora of the soil is to fill up the versatility. Here bacteria are distinguished by different functions and subdivided into such physiological groups: nitrophytic bacteria, nitrifying, nitrogen-fixing, sulfur bacteria and other bacteria. Among them are є aerobic and anaerobic forms.

As a result of the erosion of the soil, the bacteria are treated with water. Near the coastal part, up to 300 yew. In 1 ml, from the views from the coast and from the depth of the ice, the number decreases to 100-200 individuals per ml.

In atmospheric conditions, bacteria are much smaller.

Widely widened bacteria in the lithosphere below the ground horizon. With a ground ball, everything is an order of magnitude smaller, lower in the ground. Bacteria expand by hundreds of meters per glybin earth measlesі navіtіtіnі on glybinі two and more thousand meters.

Blue-green algae podibnі for budova with bacterial cells, є photosynthetic autotrophs. It is very important to live in the surface sphere of freshwater waters, I want it in the seas. The product of metabolism is nitrogenous spoluces, which stimulate the development of higher planktonic algae, which can lead to the "blooming" of water and to the difficulty, including in water supply systems.

eukaryoti All the organisms of the Earth. Nayposhirenіshі in the middle of them  growing lines, about 300 yew. Vidiv.

roslini  It is practical to single organisms, which open an organic speech for the development of physical (non-living) resources, sleepy insolation and chemical elements, such as soil (complex biogenic elements). All those who are ready to eat are already ready-made organic. That grows yak bi set, produce їzhu for all sieve food, that is, producers.

All single-cell and large-scale forms of the growths may, as a rule, are autotrophically harvested for the process of photosynthesis.

water growth There is a large group of roslin, which live near the water, and it can hardly float, or close to the substrate. Hydroelectric growths on the Earth are photosynthetic organisms, which are crooked in the atmosphere. In addition, the stench will take in nitrogen, water, phosphorus, calcium and other components without water, and not from the ground.

Інші, більш high-organized roslini sacking sushi. The stench is to remove the living elements from the soil behind the additional root system, which is transported through the stem into the leaves, and the cob is taken by the processes of photosynthesis. Lichens, moss, ferrite-like, holonasinny and pokrytonasinny (kvitkovy) є one of the most important elements of the geographic landscape, dominate there are more than 250 thousand squares. vid_v. Roslinness of land  the main generator is sour, how to get into the atmosphere, and thoughtlessly, it is not just to overload food and people without sour, ale and without sourness.

The lower soil mushrooms play the main role in the process of cleaning.

beasts represented by a great variety of forms and shapes, more than 1.7 million species. The whole kingdom of creatures is heterotrophic organisms, consumers.

The most number of species and the most number of individuals in arthropods. The coma, for example, is the style, 200 million individuals fall on the skin of a lump. In another place for a few types of varto class molluscs, ale їkh number is much less, less coma. At the third moment, for a number of views, ridge, Some of these ssavts occupy about a tenth part, and half of all types of attacks fall on rib.

This means that a large part of the ridge species was formed in water minds, And komakhi  tse essence of creatures sushi.

The komakhs developed on land in a tight ring with quilted weeds, being sapiluvachams. While growing lines have appeared more than other types, more than half of all types of roses are brought to the form. Species in the cich two classes of organisms have been used and overwhelmed at a time in a tight connection.

How many types of species land organisms and water, then the cost of living will be approximately the same for roslin, і for food  number of species on land  92-93%, in water  7-8%, which means that organisms go to land due to the laborious dispatch of the evolutionary process in the intense species development, Scho lead to the advancement of the stiffness of natural sports products of organisms and ecosystems as a whole.
1.4. About the living middle and ecological officials

A navkolishn middle-class to organism  tse sukupnіst abіotic and biotic іvnіv yogo life. The power of the middle is constantly shifting and whether it’s the truth, how it’s to see, to become attached to the number of times.

The inflow of the middle is spry by organisms behind the middle officials of the middle, called ecology.

ecological factors chain mind and elements of the middle, as they put a specific infusion on the body. Smells grow on abiotic, biological and anthropogenic (Fig. 1.3).

Small. 1.3. Classification of environmental factors

abiotic factors naming all the factors of the non-organic middle ground, pouring into the life and broader creatures and roslin. Among them, they develop physical, chemical and food products. We see that it is not too late to underestimate the ecological role of natural geophysical fields.

physical factors ce ti, dzherel which serve as a physical camp or a phenomenon (mechanic, hvilyovy i іn.). For example, the temperature is  as soon as the visok is there, if it is opic, if it is even lower  frostbite. At any temperature, there can be built-in factors: at the water  in a stretch, on land  winter and vology, і t. P.

chemistry officials, chemistry warehouse middle ground. For example, the salinity of the water, as if there is a head, life by the water, maybe out of the sea (Dead Sea), but at the same hour, in the clear water, there can be no more marine organisms. Because of the sufficiency, instead of sourness, to lay the life of creatures on land and in water, etc.

food officials, T. E. Soils, at the cost of chemical, physical and mechanical authorities soils and girskikh breeds, how to infuse yak on organisms, how to live in them, that is, for some stench є a middle ground, as well as on the root system of roslin. Good for the inflow of chemical components (biogenic elements), temperature, water content, soil structure, instead of humus, etc. On the growth and development of roselin.

Natural geophysical fields nadayut globally ecologic infusion on the life of the Earth and people. Good environmental significance, for example, magnetic, electro-magnetic, radioactive and other fields of the Earth.

Geophysical fields are also due to physical factors, a little bit of the lithosphere nature, moreover, it can be more important because of the fact that the food factor may be important for the lithosphere nature, so as the middle of the winter form mi їkh і were combined into one group (div. fig. 1.3).

However, not only abiotic factors are injected onto organisms. Organizations to establish a spirit, de їm to be brought to fight for food resources, for volodinnya singing shepherds, or teritorієu love, i.e., To enter into a competitive struggle between themselves yak on the intraspecific, so, especially, on the interspecific age. Tse is also a factor of living nature, or a biological factor.

biotic factors  Sukupnity injected life of some organisms on the life of others, as well as on the inanimate middle of living (Khrustalov і іn., 1996). In the rest of the vipad of the move about the health of the organisms themselves, the singing world is injected into the mind and living. For example, there are special microclimate, abo microredovische, In some cases, depending on the lifestyle, there is a different temperature and temperature regime: the charge here is at a few degrees warmer, more and more colder and more volatile. Particularly micro-middle ground is also found in the hollows of trees, in holes, stoves, etc.

Especially because of the meaning of micro-middle-class under the cover of a snow, as it may already be of a purely abiotic nature. As a result, a warming scene, which is most effective when it is not less than 50-70 cm, in the first place, approximately in a 5-centimeter ball, live together with other creatures-greeters, so as the temperature for them is welcome here (from 2 0 to ° C). The staff of the whole plant is saved from winter cereals, wheat, wheat. In the winter, during severe frosts, there are great creatures - deer, elk, wooded animals, foxes, hares, and others.

internal relationships mіzh individuals of the same kind are made up of group and mass effects and internal competition. The group and the masovy effect  term, proponated by Grass (1944), means the union of creatures of the same species in a group of two or more individuals and the effect of overpopulation of the middle. In the Danish hour, the most frequent times are called demographic factors... The stench characterizes the dynamics of the number and the abundance of groups of organisms in the population rivna, based on which internal competition, Yaka in the roots of the species. Vona is manifested in the main in the territorial behavior of the creatures, as they seize the place of their nests and every area in the environment. So a lot of birds and ribs.

mіzhvidovі vzaєmovіdnosini significant difference (div. fig. 1.3). Two to live on the mind can vzgalі nіyak not vlivati ​​one on one, we can vlivati ​​і friendly, і unwelcoming. You can type and combine and display different views and changes:

 neutralism offense to see the Nezalezhni і do not confuse the zhodniy girl one on one;

 competition kozhen z vid_v nadaє on іnshy unpleasant inflow;

 mutualism you can't see one without one;

 Protocooperation(Spіvdruzhnіst)  insult you see, you can feel good, but you can feel good about it, if you want a good mind to bring you a bit of spitefulness;

 commensalism one kind, commensal, I will take away the crimsonness from the spіvzhittya, and the first kind  the Lord is not a niyakoi vigodi (mutual tolerance);

 Amensalizm one species, amensal, seen as a result of attracting growth and reproduction;

 hijack a hut look to live by its sacrifice.

Multiple species are the basis for the development of biological groups (biocenoses).

anthropogenic officials  bureaucrats, bred by people and pouring into the navkolishn middle ground (obstruction, erosion of soil, degradation of leaves, etc.), look at the applied ecology (div. "Chastin II" of the tsiy hand).

Among abiotic officials, they often see climatic(Temperature, liquidity, wind and in.) І hydrographic officials of the water center (water, leakage, salinity and in.).

Lots of factors, obviously and not necessarily, change in hours. For example, climatic  stretching out, season, rock (temperature, illumination, etc.).

Factors, which are repeated regularly for hours, are called periodic. They are not only climatic, but rather hydrographic, flashing and moving, and ocean current. Factories, scho to be found unsupported (volcano steep, hijack attack, etc.) non-periodic.

Pidrozdil factors on periodical and nonperiodic (Monchadskiy, 1958) are even more significant when organisms are implanted to the minds of life.

1.5. About adaptations of organisms to the middle of living

adaptation (Lat. Pristosuvannya)  Prisosuvannya organizmіv to the middle. The whole process of hunting budov and the functions of organisms (individuals, species, populations) and their organs. Adaptation to develop for three main officials  minivosity, slump and natural species(So ​​yak i piece, zd_jsnuvanogo people).

The main adaptations of organisms to the factors of the most recent middle stage of decline. The stench was formed on the historical-evolutive way of life and was changed at once due to the minimum of ecological factors. Organizmi adapt to permanently acting periodic factors, Aleh in the middle of them, it is important to distribute the first and second.

first ce tі officials, who wandered to the Earth before the death of life: temperature, illumination, heat, increase and іn. Adaptation of organisms to the chinniks of the most ancient and most thorough.

second Periodic factors є the inherited period of the first ones: the reason for the weather, how to stay at a temperature; roslinna їzha, scho to lay in the form of cyclicity in the development of roslin; a number of biological factors in the internal injection and in. The stench has come out of the first place, and the adaptation to them is not always clear.

The normal minds in the habitat are guilty of only periodical factors, non-periodical ones.

Dzherelom adaptation є genetic changes in the body  mutations As a result of the inflow of natural factors on the historical and evolutionary stage, as well as in the result of a piece inflow on the body. Mutations and accumulated accumulations can lead to disintegration, ale zavdyaki vidboru mutations and combinuations create the meaning of "the providual creative factor of the adaptive organization of living forms" (Vikipedia. 1970. Vol. 1).

On the historical and evolutive path, the development of organisms on the basis of abiotic and biological factors in the complex. As a result of successful adaptation of organisms to a whole complex of officials, as well as "unsuccessful", i.e., the change of adaptation is a type of vimir.

An excellent butt of a successful adaptation and evolution of a horse, stretching about 60 million rockets from a short-growing ancestor to a bitter and beautiful shvidkonogo creature with a height in the hollow of up to 1.6 m. A high-rise, sub-arctic climate of the remaining ice grafted to the degree of loneliness, which was grasped by the creatures, to the point of speech, well kept to low temperatures (Velichko, 1970). In addition, there are thoughts that in the knowledge of the mammoth “Vinen” is the primary human being, who also needs to be seen: the meat of mammoths got used to it in the quality of the cold, and the skin smelled against the cold.

At the sight of the mammoths, the marriage of the Roslin 's family was intertwined with a number of mammoths, and the knowledge called for them to bend. Roslynna Yizha was here at the sight of the limite factor. Tsi factors play the most important role in the vizivanny and adaptations of organisms.

1.6. Limiting ecological factors

For the first time, on the significance of factors, how to change in the name of Y. Libikh's agricultural chemistry in the middle of the 19th century. vin standing law to the minimum: Harvest (production) is a factor that is in the minimum. As soon as in the soil the components are brown, in general, the system is temporarily important, and only if the word, for example, phosphorus, takes place in a few, close to the minimum, then it is possible to reduce the crop. Alle, it was possible to find the very same mineral speech, even more brown with optimal space in the ground, to reduce the harvest, if it stinks in excess. This means that the factors can be limіtyuyuschie, perebayuyu і in the maximum.

In such a rank, limiting environmental factors Then there are officials who will intervene the development of organisms through their instability or an excess in accordance with the need (optimal volume). Їх inodі name intermingling factors.

But to adhere to the law of the minimum of Yu. Libikha, then I will be surrounded by diyu and only on the rivni cheery speeches... R. Mitcherlich showed that it is a good idea to grow a crop of all factors of the life of a growing plant, including temperature, healthiness, illumination, etc.

visibility in sukupnomі isolated The steps are taken up to the other factors. On the other hand, from one side, the negative temperatures will accommodate in the morning and in the high lightness of the day, but from the other side, the lightness will be weaker due to the high temperatures, etc. display in laws of independence of factors V.R.Vilyams: Mind your life of equal importance, because the factors of life cannot be substituted for. For example, it is not possible for a vologosti (drive) to replace a in carbon dioxide for sleepy light, etc.

Most of the time and in the most outward view of the whole complexity of the flow of ecological factors into the organism of the image V. Shelford's law of tolerance: Visibility, for the unhappiness of the process of progress, start unsteadily (in the abbreviated sense of the senses), for, navpaki, too much of a number of factors, some of which can appear close to be carried by this organism. They call them two between tolerance.

The principle of one factor can be illustrated by the law as follows: the organism of the building is developed at temperatures from minus 5 to plus 25 0 С, i.e. E. range of tolerance lie in the middle of the temperature. Organizmi, for life, which needs to be discussed, surrounded by a high tolerance range for the magnitude of the temperature, I call stenothermic("Stino"  vuzky), and living in a wide range of temperatures  Evrіtermniye("Hebri"  wide) (Fig. 1.4).

Small. 1.4. Correlation between tolerances of stenothermal and
European Organisms (after F. Ruttner, 1953)

Due to the temperature of the day and the lowest factor, and the organisms, according to the ratio to the nature of the flow, they name it, apparently, stenobiontamі Euribionti... On the other hand, it seems, the organism of steno-mongers in terms of their relationship to vologosti, or Euribionty to the climatic officials and T.

The range of tolerance to the organism does not become permanent - for example, it sounds like a factor that is close to one, or when the organism is multiplied, since many factors become lighter. This means that the nature of the development of ecological factors in singing minds can change, that is, E. Win may be, but it may not be. At the same time, it is not possible to forget, but by organisms and themselves they have built up the limiting range of officials, having created, for example, singing microclimate (microredovische). Here vinikak is free compensation for factors, Yaka is the most effective at the level of spilot, and is more effective at the species level.

Such compensation for factors physiological acclimatization mind-European, which is wider, which, being acclimated in a given specific mission, creates a widespread population, which is called ecotype, the inter-tolerance of which is shown to the minds of the world. In case of large adaptive processes, there may be a genetic race.

Otzhe, in natural minds organisms lie down I will become critical physical factors, because of the necessary wordsі by tolerance range the organisms themselves to the cich and the other components of the middle.
Control food

1. What is the same biological organization of life? What about them?

2. What is the biogeocenosis and ecosystem?

3. How do we fit organisms for the character of dzherela living? For ecological functions in biological spirits?

4. How is a living organism and what is it that can be seen from inanimate nature?

5. What is the mechanism of adaptation in the interaction of organisms as a whole system and in the midst of the community?

6. What is the behavior and photosynthesis of roslin? What is the meaning of metabolic processes of autotrophs for the life of the Earth?

7. What is the essence of the biogenetic law?

8. Who has the special features of the current classification of organisms?

9. What is the center of living organisms? Understand the ecological factor.

10. What is the name of the factors of the nonorganic middle class? Guide the name and give the number of factors.

11. What is the name of the essence of the factors of the living organic center? Guide the name and give the visibility of the life of some organisms to the life of those on the internal and of the different types.

12. Who is the essence of the adaptation? What is the meaning of periodic and non-periodic officials in the process of adaptation?

13. What is called an ecological factor, how is it possible to interconnect the development of an organism? The laws of the minimum of Y. Libikh and the tolerance of V. Shelford.

14. Who has the day of the isolated and sukupnaya diya of ecological factors? V.R.Vilyams' law.

15. How to be smart about the range of tolerance to organisms and how the stench grows fallow in terms of the magnitude of the range?

12th ed., Supplement. і revised - Rostov n / a: Fenix, 2007 .-- 602 p.

Laureate of the competition of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation for the establishment of the new generation of people from the natural sciences (Moscow, 1999). The first Russian teacher in the discipline "Ecology" for university students who are starting to learn technical sciences.

The author of the spellings is in accordance with the official sovereign sanctuary standard and the program recommended by the Ministry of Education of Russia. Win is stored in two parts - theoretical and applied. In the five of these, the main provisions of the home ecology, including about the biosphere, the ecology of the people, were revealed; anthropogenic inflow into the biosphere, problems of ecology and protection of the environment. In general, the student is in a new ecological, noosphere svitoglyad form.

Designated for students of the first major mortgages. The teacher is also recommended for teachers and middle school students, lyceums and colleges. Wine is necessary for a wide range of engineering and technical workers, as they take care of the food of the rational nature conservation and protection of the new community.

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ЗМІСТ
Shanovny reading! ten
Peredmova 11
Entry. ECOLOGIA. SHORT LOOK TO ROSE 13
§ 1. Subject and department of ecology 13
§ 2. History of development of ecology 17
§ 3. Significance of environmental protection 21
Part I. THEORETICAL ECOLOGY
Rozdil first. ZAGALNA ECOLOGIYA 26
Chapter 1. Organism as the whole system is alive 26
§ 1. Equivalent biological organization and ecology 26
§ 2. Development of the body as a living system 32
§ 3. Systems of organisms and biota of the Earth? 6
Chapter 2. Relationship to the Organizm and the Center 43
§ 1. Understanding about the middle ground, the beginning and the ecology of the bureaucrats 43
§ 2. Basic statements about the adaptations of organisms 47
§ 3.Limituyuchim bureaucrat 49
§ 4. The meaning of physical and chemical factors of the middle in the life of organisms 52
§ 5.Educational bureaucrats and their role in the life of the Roslin and the root community 70
§ 6. Resources of the living isstot yak ecological factor 77
Chapter 3. Populations 86
§ 1. Static indicators of populations 86
§ 2. Dynamical indicators of populations 88
§ 3. The triviality of life 90
§ 4. Dynamics of growth of the population size 94
§ 5. Ecological strategy of vision 99
§ 6. Regulation of population density 100
Chapter 4. Biotic spirit 105
§ 1. Species structure of biocenosis 106
§ 2. The spacious structure of the biocenosis 110
§ 3. Ecological nisha. Vzaimovіdnosіnі organіzvіv in bіocenosis 111
Chapter 5. Ecological systems 122
§ 1. Concept of the ecosystem 122
§ 2. Production and distribution in nature 126
§ 3. Homeostasis of the ecosystem 128
§ 4. Energy of the ecosystem 130
§ 5. Biological productivity of ecosystems 134
§ 6. Dynamics of the ecosystem 139
§ 7. Systemic reason and model of vecology 147
Rozdil other. Vchennya about BIOSPHERE 155
Chapter 6. The biosphere - the global ecosystem of the earth 155
§ 1. The biosphere is one of the Earth's shell 155
§ 2. Warehouse and between the biosphere 161
§ 3. Circuit of rivers in nature 168
§ 4. Biogeochemical cycles of the most important life-giving speech 172
Chapter 7. Natural ecosystems of the earth and the chorological units of the biosphere 181
§ 1. Classification of natural ecosystems of the biosphere on a landscape basis 181
§ 2. Land biomi (ecosystems) 190
§ 3. Freshwater ecosystems 198
§ 4. Marine ecosystems 207
§ 5. The integrity of the biosphere as a global ecosystem 213
Chapter 8. The Basic Directions of the Evolution of the Biosphere 217
§ 1. Vchennya V. І. Vernadsky about the biosphere 217
§ 2. Bioriznomanittya biosphere as a result of the її evolyutsії 223
§ 3. 0 regulating infusion of bioti on the navkolishn center 226
§ 4. Noosphere yak new stage of the evolution of the biosphere 230
Rozdil third. EKOLOGIYA PEOPLE 234
Chapter 9. Bio-social nature of people and ecology 234
§ 1. Lyudina yak biological species 235
§ 2. Population characteristics of people 243
§ 3. Natural resources of the Earth is a factor that will limit the life of people 250
Chapter 10. Anthropogenic ecosystems 258
§ 1. Lyudin and ecosystems 258
§ 2. Silskogospodarsky ecosystems (agroecosystems) 263
§ 3. Industrial-Miski Ecosystems 266
Chapter 11. Ecology and Health of People 271
§ 1. Infusion of natural and ecological factors on the health of people 271
§ 2. Infusion of social and ecological factors on the health of people 274
§ 3. Hygiene and health of people 282
Part II. APPLIED ECOLOGY
Rozdil quarters. Man-made into the biosphere 286
Chapter 12. The main types of anthropogenic injections into the biosphere 286
Chapter 13. Anthropogenic melt into the atmosphere 295
§ 1. Obstruction of the atmospheric twist 296
§ 2. Main dzherela obrudnennya atmosphere 299
§ 3. Ecological inheritance of the atmosphere 302
§ 4. Ecological inheritance of the global atmospheric pollution 307
Chapter 14. Anthropogenic flooding into the hydrosphere 318
§ 1. Obrudnenya hydrosphere 318
§ 2. Ecological heritage of obstruction of the hydrosphere 326
§ 3. Consumption of underground and surface waters 331
Chapter 15. Anthropogenic flooding into the lithosphere 337
§ 1. Injection on the ground 338
§ 2. Into the girski breed і їkh masivi 352
§ 3. Injection to nadra 360
Chapter 16. Anthropogenic fusion on biological spirits 365
§ 1. The meaning of a fox in nature and life of people 365
§ 2. Anthropogenic flooding on a foil and in a roslinny ugrupovannya 369
§ 3. Ecological inheritance of people flowing into the roslinny light 372
§ 4. The meaning of food in the biosphere 377
§ 5. The infusion of people on the creatures and the cause of their death 379
Chapter 17. Special views flowing into the biosphere 385
§ 1. Obstruction of the middle by the entrances of the virobnity and living 385
§ 2. Noise injection 390
§ 3. Biological problems 393
§ 4. Infusion of electro-magnetic fields and vipromynyuvan 395
Chapter 18. Extreme Flow to the Biosphere 399
§ 1. Infusion of the mass slaughter 400
§ 2. Infusion of technogenic ecological disasters 403
§ 3. Spontaneous dashing 408
Rozdil p'yaty. EKOLOGICHNA ZAKHIST TA KHORONA NAVKOLISHNOGO SEDVISHCHA 429
Chapter 19. The basic principle of protection of the natural environment and rational environmental protection 429
Chapter 20. Engineering and Ecological Zahist 437
§ 1. Principles of direct engineering to the navkolishnogo center 437
§ 2. The norm of the quality of the navkolishny center 443
§ 3. Zachist atmosphere 451
§ 4. Zachist hydrosphere 458
§ 5. Zakhist lithosphere 471
§ 6. Zachist biotic ugrupovan 484
§ 7. Zachist navkolishnogo center of special types of injections 500
Chapter 21. Fundamentals of environmental law 516
§ 1. Dzherela environmental law 516
§ 2. State organizations for the protection of the navkolishnogo center 520
§ 3. Environmental standardization and certification 522
§ 4. Ecological examination and assessment in pouring on the navkolishnє center (OVNS) 524
§ 5. Environmental management, audit and certification 526
§ 6. Understanding about ecological risik 528
§ 7. Ecological monitoring (monitoring of the new community) 531
§ 8. Environmental control and community environmental protection 537
§ 9. Ecological rights and obligations of the big people 540
§ 10. Legal evidence for environmental law enforcement 543
Chapter 22. Ecology and Economics 547
§ 1. Ecological and economic area of ​​natural resources and labor 549
§ 2. License, agreement and license for environmental management 550
§ 3. New mechanisms of financing the protection of the midst of the midst 552
§ 4. Understanding about the concept of steel development 556
Chapter 23. Ecology of Suspension 560
§ 1. Anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. Formation of a new ecological property 560
§ 2. Ecological education, culture and culture 567
Chapter 24. International sports in ecology 572
Section 1 of the International Objects of Protection of the New Colonies 573
§ 2. The basic principle of the international environmental education 576
§ 3. Participation of Russia in the international environmental education 580
Ecological Manifest (for M.F. Reimers) (substitute visnovka) 584
The main understanding and value in the area of ​​ecology, protection of the midst of the midst and nature of the environment 586
Shower 591
RECOMMENDED LITERATURE 599

Lectures 8-9. BIOGEOCENOSIS і th component. UNDERSTAND, structure. Method of vivchennya phytocenoses.

literature

V.I. Korobkin, L.V. Peredelsky Ecology. Rostov-on-Don: Fenix, 2005.576 p. (Vishta svita)

Stepanovskikh A.S. Biological ecology. Theory and practice: a handler for university students who are looking for environmental specialties. M .: UNITY-DANA, 2009.791 p.

Stepanovskikh A.S. Regional ecology: Pidruchnik for universities. M .: UNITI, 2001.510 p.

lecture 8

1. Understanding about biogeocenosis

2. Component warehouse BGC

3. Phytocenoses - the head component of biogeocenosis

4. The designation of the "phytocenosis"

5. The structure of phytocenosis

5.1. species structure

Kіlkіsnі indicators of species structure

What is the correct description of the floristic warehouse for phytocenosis?

life to mind

5.2. Prostorova, abo morphological structure of biocenosis

vertical heterogeneity

horizontal heterogeneity

lecture 9

6. Polovі methods of implantation of biogeocenoses

Method of laying test plots

The technique will describe the tiers

Floristic warehouse identification technique

7. Diagnostic signs of phytocenoses for presentation to singing associations

JOIN

In one of the first lectures of the Bula, the concept rivniv organization of life(Biological spectrum). Heads of life organization: gene, celline, organ, organism, population, sportsmanship (biocenosis). For example (according to Y. Odum, 1975):

1) Gennius, abo molecular

2) clitinniy і fabrics

3) organ

4) organizmenny

5) Population-specific industrial mizh of "organismic" and "overorganic" races.

6) Ecosystem, biogeocenotic vivchayutsya vvchayutsya in superorganizmennyh systems in the boundaries of biogeocenosis, ecosystems (among populations, groups, organisms in the middle BGC).

7) biosphere nyvisky, to look at each other among macrocosms, biogeocenoses (lis-step, lis-swamp, lis-tundra and іn.), see the law of the circulation of words, energy in the global aspect.

Regional ecology of vivchaє The remaining three levels of biological organization from organisms to ecosystems.

What can I do to fix the organism? Tom, who is the first, yaky You can do it yourself! The posture of life organisms does not appear.

 - the main subject of advancing during the ecosystem approach in ecology is the process of transformation of speech and energy between life and physical middle, that is, the process of material and energy exchange in the ecosystem in the whole. But it is the relationship of living organisms (individuals) between themselves and the middle of the population-biocenotic rivni and rivnya of biological systems of even higher rank (biogeocenoses and biosphere).

 - the main object of vivchennya є ecosystem.

Ecosystem to the rank of biogeocenosis in the ecology of the country takes on a particular one, and organism, or species, is the least one, but it can be referred to important objects.

Why is it so important and so necessary to bring nature to the level of ecosystems, and in the first place of biogeocenoses? To that, if you know the laws of the formulation and function of ecosystems, you can transfer and overtake them as a result of the inflow of negative factors on them, transfer the protective factors and go into the bag to preserve the middle of the life of the people, seemingly.

1. Understanding about biogeocenosis

The term "biogeocenosis" was propounded by Academician V. N. Sukachov in the period of the 1930s. one hundred percent to the fossil ecosystems.

The value of the biogeocenosis according to V.N. Sukachev (1964: 23) is dominated by the classics - “... earthly surface one-sided natural phenomena (atmosphere, mountainous breed, growth, food light and microorganisms, soil and hydrological minds) singing type I will exchange speech and energy: between myself and with the other manifestations of nature and which is an internal super-verbose unity, which is known to be in permanent Russia and development ... ".

Have a simple move "Biogeocenosis ce the whole variety of species and the whole variety of factors of the middle ground, which means that the given ecosystem starts with the urgency of the inevitable anthropogenic inflow. " with the urahuvannya of the inevitable anthropogenic inflow tribute to happiness. For hours V.M. Sukachova did not need to bring the anthropogenic factor to the main environment-forming factors, such as guilt at a time. Ale і todі bulo zrozumіlo, scho components biogeocenosis not just know the order, but actively interact with oneself ( Small. 1).

2. Component warehouse BGC

biocenosis, For a biological community, a set of socially lagging three components: height, food and microorganism.

In nature, there is no single-species formation, but a settlement, and in biocenoses, you can grow up to the right with the formation of large species. Biocenoses, as a form of organizing living speech, are built up to reach a trivial hour, and that is characterized by a tired structural organization to enter to new organisms stable.

By the head authorities of biocenoses є the health of the production, the speech, the volodya is aliveself-regulation and self-reproduction .

Growth of biocenosis to lie in the size of the territory with one-sided abiotic authorities, i.e. biotope.

biotope A thin "geographic" space of life for a biocenosis ekotopiv.

Ekotop apply priming with a characteristic podruntyam, with a fossil podstyle, as well as with this chi іnshoy kіlkіstyu humus (humus), і atmosphere with the singular magnitude of the drowsy radioactivity, with the same amount of the modern science, with the characteristic snake in the amount of carbon dioxide, small houses, aerosols, etc., in water biodiversity water.

The three components in the biotope are the closest to the biogenic storage part of the biogeocenosis of the biogeocenosis; Organic speech in the ground is a product of the life of the biocenosis at the early stages of transformation.

The spit of organisms is surrounded by a biotope (in the form of oysters between milini) from the ear itself. Biocenosis and biotope function in uninterrupted unity.

Science about biogeocenoses - biogeocenology. Vona deal with the problems of interaction of living organisms between themselves and the navkolishnim and abiotic, tobto inanimate, middle-class.

Biogeocenology is one of the direct ecosystem, abo biogeocenotic, equal to the organization of life (biological spectrum) .

3. Phytocenoses - the head component of biogeocenosis

The skin component of a biocenosis, like a biocenosis, can be subject to respect from an ecological point of view, you can assign not only a special course of lectures, but a mustache to your life.

Golovna, vuzlov pіdsystem of biogeocenoses - phytocenoses.

Phytocenosi є:

1) head receivers and transformers of sleepy power,

2) the head post-chiefs of production in biogeocenoses,

3) in their structures, the processes of insight and re-implementation of the basis of life on the planet - organic speech, and all the processes that occur in biogeocenoses are actively perceived.

4) with a lot of stench, it is easily accessible for vivchennya without being in the middle of nature,

5) for them, through a stretch of dozens of rockets of breaking up and breaking up effective methods of preliminaries and methods of cameral processing of actual materials.

The most basic respect we will be given to phytocenosis and methods of yogo vivchennya. Tim is bigger, there are a lot of regularities that govern phytocoenosis, expanding to zoocenosis and microorganisms.