Yaka geographic science vivchaє relєf. Geography: ancient and modern science. Understanding geography yak science

The value of science and the world in spiritual culture.

Natural sciences, humanities and technical sciences. Їх structure and problems.

Natural science and technogenic civilization.

The value of science and the world in spiritual culture.

natural science as a science vivchaє all processes and phenomena, which are seen and seen in a real ob'ktivny light, geographic obolontsi, space... The chain of science, the foundation for the creation of empirical revisions (revisions in practice) hypotheses and the establishment of theories, how to describe natural phenomena and processes.

natural science subject- facts and appearances that are sensed by our organs of thought. Zavdannya vchenyi zagalnitii tsya appearances and set up a theoretical model, which includes the laws that cheruyuyut the appearances of nature.

1.1. The value of science and the world in spiritual culture.

Science is the most important element of the spiritual culture of people. It is traditionally accepted to divide all obvious science information into two great divisions - into natural science, in which knowledge about modern nature, and humanity (in lat. humanitas - human nature), in the yaku include knowledge about people, suspension and spiritual life of people. For natural sciences, the subject of education є ob'єkti, speech of nature, in the sphere of humanities, the subject of education є podії, sub'єkti.

The insights from the natural sciences and the humanities are based on the fact that the natural sciences are based on the basis of the sub'єkta (people) and the object (of nature, as the minds of lyudin-sub'єkt), and before the human the very sub'єktu. In nature, there are processes of activity, spontaneous and independent processes of people, and in suspension there is nothing to be seen without specific goals, interests and motivations.

Such a challenge could not help but build support and critics on the side of the humanities, as they evolved the manifestations of social life and spiritual culture. Most often, such a definition of supravodzhuvalas in the list of natural-scientific methods of development for the advancement of social, cultural and humanitarian processes.

Winning of new scientific and interdisciplinary natures of preliminaries, significant influx of scientific and technological revolutions into the current science of knowledge of numerous confrontations between men and women of naturalists and humanities In this day, most often sociologists, lawyers, teachers and teachers and teachers of self-disciplinary and humanitarian methods, such as systemic education, ideas and methods of cybernetics, theory and informational development, self-education

In such a rank, the introduction of the basic concepts of natural science by students of humanities and social and economic specialties seems to be a necessary way for the stagnation of natural-scientific methods in their own abilities to learn a picture of

1.2. The place of science in the system of culture and structure

Science is not to be touched in order toto help you get rich. Nawpaki, richesmaє serve the development of science. Abay Kunanbaev

In the historical process, the development of the suspension and the people, their cognitive and creative way

nosti, as well as its infusion and relationship with the new nature, and thus begin with the camp of their culture. At the crossroads of Latin culture (culture.) means processing, vikhovannya, education, development. In the broad sense of the word culture is everything that is created by human beings on the basis of what is given by nature. Science is one of the galuzei of culture (Fig. 1.1). If for a long time an important place in the system of culture was occupied by mysticism, in antiquity - by mythology, in Serednyovichi - by religion, then it can be done, but in the current suspension of dominance, the influx of science.

Science develops into different forms suspicious propertiesі culture, let's step:

As a mythology, it’s not pragmatic not to explain the whole thing, but the formula for the laws and development of nature. The myth of the victory in the early stages of the history of the development of the people, like a message, a message, a fantastic image like (gods, legendary heroes, Podії і t. P.) Bulli, with a try of publicity and explain the development of nature and suspension. To complete the guess of the mythical gods and heroes of the ancient Greeks, schob

uyaviti zmist mythology (Zeus is the thunderer, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Athena is the patron saint of sciences, Aphrodite is the goddess of love, etc.);

from mystics Tim, scho pragne is not up to the angry about the message, but to the theoretical mind. Mysticism and vinikla as an element of the mysterious images of the religious communities of the Ancient Descent and Sunset. The head in cikh images is the tse of splitting people up with God, for be-yakim tamnichuyu mestotya. More spilkuvannya, zgіdno mystitsі, to reach nіbito through the sense of the sense, the extreme, the closeness і etc.;

from relіgії Tim, well, mind and reliance on sensitive reality in science is more meaningful, nizh vira. In nautsi re-vazhaє rose, ale in nіy, too, there is a mіsce vіra in the cognitive power of the senses, and іntuіtsіya, especially when formulated hypotheses. Science can be attributed to relevance, some respect for the culture of culture, it is straightforward in different speech: in science - on empirical reality, in religion - over the extrasensory (vira). At the vidminu of the scientific svitoglyad, the religious svitoglyad twirls in the spilkuvanni with the "deity", with the supra-nature behind the help of prayers, sacraments, sacred things, symbols. Vono is based on the prayer and sacrifice set up to the supra-natural, the idea of ​​which is primed in the glibins of the holy religions;

from philosophy Tim, scho її visnovka admit an empirical change;

from mystery to learn to their own rationalism, not to think about equal images, but brought to the level of theories. Mystery is one of the forms of suspicious svidomosty, as the image of action in artistic images;

from ideology Tim, what are the truths of great significance and do not lie in the interests of the singing vernaculars of the suspension;

from technics Tim, that science is not aimed at the victorious otrimanih knowledge, but at the knowledge itself.

the science- the whole sphere of human activity, which is a rational way of knowing the light, in yak

Vyroblyayut and theoretically systematize knowledge about action, based on empirical revision and mathematical proof.

Yak a bagatofunctional phenomenon, science is: 1) the galuz of culture; 2) the way of knowing the light; 3) a singular system of organization (academy, university, university, institute, laboratory, science partnership, etc.).

The basic internal structure and classification of other sciences (Fig. 1.2).

Natural, human and mathematical sciences are fundamental, and technical, medical, social, social and social sciences are applied.

Heads of fundamental sciences є the knowledge of laws, which are interrelated to the basic structures of nature. Fundamental science advances vis-à-vis the prospects for the development of science.

Bezposrednaya meta of applied sciences є storing the results of the fundamental sciences for the development of not only educational, but social and practical problems. So, the current stage of the scientific and technical progress of dressings with the development of the avant-garde dosages of applied sciences: microelectronics, robotics, computer science, biotechnology, genetics, etc. I will straightforwardly, I will keep my applied straightness, I will build up a fundamental character.

The results of scientific knowledge є theory, laws, models, hypotheses, empirical publicity. All the understanding, the skin of which has its own meaning, can be summed up in one word "concept". witness "Concept"(Singing way of treating any object, phenomenon, process) to resemble Latin conceptio - intelligence, system. The concept, in Perche, is a whole system of glances, those that are more intelligent of events, processes. In a different way, - a single one, which is the origin of the idea, the thought of whether it is to the creation, scientific practice and so on. D.

Geography - vcheni-fahivtsi z geography.

Also, the word vikoristovutsya is given for the significant vicladac of geography on a rose school argo.

Georgy vivchaє the geographic envelope of the Earth - the sphere of interpenetration and interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and noosphere, structure, dynamics. The most important subject of geographical vivchennya is the processes of interaction between people and nature.

The main meta - scientific development of the ways of the rational territorial organization of the suspension and environmental protection, the establishment of the fundamentals of strategies for the ecologically safe development of the suspension.

A geographer can specialize in kranavstva, physical geography, geomorphology, glaciology, economic geography, Geoinformatics. Kraєznavets zbiraє material about native land, Vivchaє yogo, I lead an educational robot. Physicogeographer vsebichno appraisal natural complexes and the first place for the present, the development of geographic forecasts that I will become, in any landscape, can be found for different reasons in 10, 20, 50 years. vivchaє relєf earthly surface and the results of the interaction of earth measles with callous shells our planet. Do not try to stop when the cinnamon dumps are heard, when mines, gas pipelines, roads are built, in hydroelectric construction, for Silskoy government and protect nature.

The geographer's robot most often consists of three stages: preparatory, Polish and cameral. At the preparatory stage, the task is to be set, to learn materials, pictures, results in advance, and to start the program of Polish robots. The polovy step is to get the actual material. All the tributes are found in Polish schoolchildren. In the cameral stage, the collection of materials is processed, the results and results are interpreted.

The very word geography (Greek. Land description, Earth and I write, describe) has two meanings:

A single complex of sciences, in order to evolve the geographic envelope of the Earth and to focus on the evolved spacious-clock patterns. The main objects of the Institute of Geographical Sciences are the geosphere (biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and ґprimary curvature) І geosystems (landscapes, natural zones, Biogeocenosi ...)

There is a knowledge of the spacious-hour peculiarities of whether a territory, an object, or a process (geography of the continent and oceans, geography of Russia, geography of the tundra, geography of broader bird flu, geography of karst processes N)

Ob'kt vivchennya geography - laws and regularities of distribution and interconnection of components geographic centerі їх іднан на ізнирівня. The folding of the object of preliminaries and the breadth of the subject area have zoomed in the differentiation of the United Geography on a number of special (galuzev) scientific disciplines, which set up the system of geographic sciences. Within this framework, natural (physical and geographical) and community (social and economic) geographical sciences are seen. Inodi okremo vidіlyayut geographic cartography, as an encirclement of geographic discipline.

Geography - one z found sciences... Bagato її the foundations of boules were laid in the era of Greece. Uzagalniv tsei dosvid vidatny geographer Claudius Ptolemy in the 1st century AD e.

You can say that the geographer is a human being, that he is living the land and everything that is going to be found.

For geographic culture, the most common reason for the culture of geography is science. The culture of geographic knowledge yak vchenyh geographers, as well as the population. In robots "Geographic culture" and "Geographic picture of the world" V. P. Maksakovsky looks at the relationship between the understanding and the position of the modern geography. The geographic culture of wine includes the following components:

1) a geographic picture of the world,

2) geographic mission,

3) methods of geography,

4) mova geography. It is a pity that there is a wide range of scientific geographic culture, because the suspension is mainly based on the descriptive geography, and there is no information about the methods and methods of such geography.

Know the different types of geography: physical geography, economical, political, medical and medical.

There are basically two views:

physical geography

Social and economic geography

The geographer is not only in primitiveness, but in the least in the least; You can go to see nature (expeditions, polovi with caution, visit excursions with students or schoolchildren - like a geographer-teacher).

Tsey fakhіvets is guilty of being a physical cholovіk.

The geographer is guilty of the nobility as well as mathematics, physics, geology, and biology, knowledge, chemistry.

Professionally important quality

suppleness;

Powerfulness up to the slightest goodness;

okomir;

Memory is blamed;

Garna orієntаtsіya on mіstsevostі;

non-vibrancy;

Clever analizuvati and logical mislity;

Physical vitality.

Medical evidence

Infectious diseases and diseases;

neurosis;

Psychic and nerves;

Disgusting sir and hearing.

Those who are rejected by the profession are the primary mortgages.

Disputed Professions

Ecologist, hydrologist, geologist, geochemist, geophysicist, geomorphologist.

Famous and vidom Geography

Zagalne zemleznavstvo in the systems of geographic sciences

geographer It is accepted to name a complex of closely related sciences, which extends into several blocks (V.P. Maksakovsky, 1998): physical-geographical, social-economic-geographical sciences, cartography, national science. Kozhen from tsikh blocks, in his own heart, pidrozdіlyaєtsya on the system of geographic sciences.

The block of physical and geographical sciences is composed of the outlying physical and geographical sciences, private (galuzev) physical and geographical sciences, paleogeography. Headquarters of Physics and Geography Science home physical geography (home land science) and regional physical geography.

All physical and geographic sciences are ob'ednu single ob'єkt doslіdzhennya. Infectious even more of the people came to think about those who are all physical and geographic science in the geographic envelope. For the determination of N.I. Mikhailova (1985), physical geography is the sphere of scientific knowledge about the geographic envelope of the Earth, its warehouse, structure, particular formulation and development, spacious differentiation.

Geographic obolonka (GO) - the material system, established during the interaction and interaction of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, living speech, and on happy step- і human society. The upper and lower boundaries of the GO are approximately built up from the boundaries of the extended life. It stretches in the middle to the height of 20-25 km (to the cordon of the ozone screen), including the entire surface water shell up to 11 km in the ocean and the upper 2, 3 kilometers of the lithosphere.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, geography is not є a science about the Earth in a zagaly - also the zavdannya would be unbearable for one science, and vivchaє only a certain and to finish a thin її pry - GO. At the same time and in the cich boundaries, nature is inhabited by the sciences (biology, zoology, geology, climatology, etc.). How is it that the land acquisition is in the systemic classification of geographic sciences? In the field of skin science, the subject matter of education is developed (the subject of science is the Kintseva meta to the point of being geographically accurate, the focus of the subject of science, the closest ). At the same time, the subject of education of science has become an object of education of the whole system of sciences at a higher low classificatory level. There are such classifications of steps (taxons) of the Chotiri: cycle, family, genus, species (Fig. 1).

Together with the geographer in Earth Science Cycle include biology, geology, geophysics, geochemistry. All ex cikh sciences have one object of vivchennya - the Earth, ale skin from them is the subject of vivchennya (biology - organic life, geochemistry - chemistry warehouse Earth, geology - nadra, geology - the earth's surface as an unremarkable complex of natural and social activities). On the basis of the cycle, the subject matter of the unity of geography. In the cycle of sciences about the Earth, geography of the Kremlin is not one subject of vivchennya, but the first method - descriptions . The oldest and most descriptive method for all geographic sciences, the method of prodding faster and more comprehensively at the same time with the development of science. At the very name geography(From the walnut ge - Earth and grapho - I write), laying the subject and the main method of reading.

Geography in the equal cycle is an undivided geography, the ancestor of nd ex geographic sciences. Vona vivchaє the most intangible laws and undifferentiated ones are taken on the basis of the fact that, however, visnovka is expanding on all the advances in the field of geographic science.

The family of geographical sciences establishes physical and economic geography, regional knowledge, cartography, history and methodology of geographical science. All the stench may be from a single object - the earth's surface, albeit objects: physical geography - the geographic shell of the Earth, economical - the government and people in the form of territorial social and economic systems. Regional denomination is a synthesis of physical and economic geography, in the native land it is possible to wear a zalnogeographic triad (nature, nationality, dignity) character.

The family of geographical sciences has a special place of borrowing the history and methodology of geographical science. It is not the traditional history of geographic views, but the history of geographic ideas, the history of the formation of the modern methodological foundations of geography. Yu.G. Saushkin (1976).

Rid of physical and geographic sciences of ideas to the field of land exploration, landscape science, paleogeography and private Galuzevic sciences. Tsi development of science ob'єdnu one ob'єkt vivchennya - geographic obolonka; the subject of dermatological education is specific, individual - ϶ᴛᴏ as one of the structural parts or sides geographic envelope(Geomorphology is the sphere of scientific knowledge about the relief of the earth's surface, the law of water science and meteorology are science, how to develop a new shell, the formation of classifications and geographic expansion, soil science is the laws of science, folding shell of the Earth, biogeography vivchaє warehouse of living organisms, їх expansion and formation of biocenoses). Head of paleogeography - vivchennya of geographic obolonka and dynamics natural minds in the past geological era. The subject of landscape studies is the thin, most active central sphere of GO - the landscape sphere, which is formed from natural-territorial complexes of a different rank. The subject of vivchennya zagalnogo zemleznavstva (OZ) є structure, internal and external interconnections, dynamics of the function of GO as a whole system.

Zemleznstvo is a fundamental science, so vivchay zagalnye regularities of budovia, the function and development of GO in the whole, of the components and natural complexes in one and the other іnuvannya of the occasional natural (natural-anthropogenic) situations, tendencies їkh young transformation into the future. In other words, zagalne earthquake - ϶ᴛᴏ science chi vchenya about that I'm going to leave Lyudin middle, de realizuyutsya and we are encouraged by the processes and phenomena and functions of living organisms.

In the Danish hour, GO changed greatly under the influx of people. In nіy zooseredzhenі region of the most important state activity of the suspension. Infection is already ill-advised to look at people without urahuvannya. The link between geographers' robots has become a formulation of the phenomenon of hard straits (V.P. Maksakovsky, 1998). Zagalom land exploration as fundamental science especially saw the importance of the given directly. In pershu cherga, tse humanization, ᴛ.ᴇ. turn to people, nd spheres and cycles of yogo efficiency. Humanization is a new svitoglyad, as it stands for the value of the zagaln-people, out-of-town culture, in conjunction with the geography of geography is guilty of seeing the connection `` man - statehood - territory - navkolishn Wednesday ''.

In a different way, tse sociologization, ᴛ.ᴇ. promotion of respect for social aspects of development.

In the third place, ecologization is straightforward, as in the given hour it is more important to get hungry. The ecological culture of the people is to blame for the inclusion of the tips, I have learned in the region the importance and the need for proportionality of the suspension and skin people and the possibilities of preserving the positive ecological qualities and powers dovkilla.

Quarterly, economics is straightforward, which is typical of many sciences.

In the systems of fundamental geography course of out-of-town earthquake vikonuє kіlka important functions:

1. The whole course is to introduce a possible geographer into his folding professional education, laying the foundations of a geographic survey and a misnomer. Processes and appearances are looked at in the systemic connection between themselves and in the exuberant space, for example, as a private discipline of mesmerizing vivchati їkh, first and foremost, one in one.

2. Earth science is the theory of GO as an integral system, which is the basis for geographic and information development of matter, as well as principles of significance for geography as a whole and allowing the vicarists to provide an adequate geographic methodology.

3. Land exploration є the theoretical base of the global ecology, like the zooseredzhu of the Zusilla on the assessment of the production mill and the forecast of the closest changes in the geographic envelope, like the middle age, the definition of living organisms and the life of people because of the disease.

4. Earth science є the theoretical base and the basis of the Evolutionary geography - the magnificent block of disciplines, which are used to interpret and decipher the history of the development and development of our planet, the development of the vast geography of the geographic area. Local land surveying will ensure the correctness of the past, the argumentation of the reasons and the inheritance of current processes and occurrences in civil society, the correctness of the analysis and transfer to the analogous basis of the past.

5. Land exploration - ϶ᴛᴏ a free place among geographic knowledge, navichki and uyavlenny, іdimanim in school courses, and theory of civil defense.

The current concept of land exploration, as it was thought to be systematic about the whole object - GO, also transforming - from the knowledge of fundamental physical and geographical laws to the level of knowledge on the basis of the most optimized human natural center(Natural-anthropogenic) and control of processes, including the zooming of human activity and inheritance on the planetary level.

1.2. History of development of out-of-town land exploration

The development of out-of-town land exploration as a science is not related to the development of geography. There are reasons for the zeal to stand before the geographer, in the same world and in the zealous landowners.

All sciences, incl. geography, power three stages of knowledge:

Collection and accumulation of facts;

Bringing їх into the system, stemming the classification and theory;

Scientific forecast, practical sucking theory.

The zavdannya, as geography set before itself, in the world of development of science and human suspension changed.

Antique geography is basically a small description of the function, it was occupied with the description of evanescent lands. Tse zavdannya geography vikonuval up to the great geographic views of the 16-17 centuries. Described directly in geography did not waste its meaning і in the given hour. At the same time, in the nadra of the descriptive straight line, the nascent straight line - analytic: pershі geographic theory came to antiquity... Aristotle (philosopher, teachings, 384-322 BC) - the founder of the analytic directly in geography. Yogo pratsya `` Meteorology '', according to the essence of the course of extravagant land exploration, in which we talked about the knowledge and mutually penetrating of many spheres, about the circulation of vology and the adoption of a little rick for the surface runoff of the earth, about the surface of the earth sea ​​flows, Earthlings, Earth zones. To Eratosthenes (275-195 BC), the first to accurately measure the circumference of the Earth along the meridian is 252 yew. Stages, scho close to 40 yew. Km.

An ancient Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (bl. 90-168 AD), who is alive in the period of the development of the Roman Empire, has played a great and unremarkable role in the development of zagalny land exploration. Ptolemy developed geography and chorography. For the first time in the mav on uvazi``linew images of the whole part of the Earth that we see, from all this time, what is on them '', other - report to describe miscellaneous; Persha (geography) can be right with a circle, a friend (horography) - with a taste. Ptolemy has been promoted to two new cartographic projections, he deservedly became the `` father '' of cartography. '' Guide to Geography '' (in the base of the geocentric system of light) of Ptolemy from 8 books will complete the ancient period in the development of geography.

The middle geography is based on the dogmas of the church.

At 1650 in Holland, Bernhard Waren (1622-1650) publiku``Universal geography '' is a good thing, from which you can lead the hour of extravagant earthquake as an independent scientific discipline. He knew the publicity of the results of the Great Geographical Indications and successes in the field of astronomy, which spiral into a heliocentric picture of light (N. Copernicus, G. Galilei, J. Bruno, I. Kepler). The subject of geography, according to B. varena, is to become an amphibian colo, of statements interpenetrating one in one parts - earth, water, atmosphere. Amphibian colo in a whole vivchaєnd Common geography. Oremi oblasts are a subject of private geography.

In the 18th-19th centuries, since the books were mainly used for descriptions, an analytical and explanatory function was found in the first place: geographers analyzed the accumulated data and developed the first hypotheses and theories. Through the first century of the painting, the science of A. Humboldt (1769-1859) has grown. A. Humboldt - vcheny-encyclopedist, mandrіvnik, prelіdnik of nature Of America- presenting the nature as a whole, I create a picture of the world. It is a great merit of the yogi pole in the fact that it is a problem to open the meaning of the analysis of interconnections as a provincial thread of geography science. Rusty by the analysis of interconnection between the roslin and the climate, the basis of the geography of the roslin; expanded the range of interconnection tvarinny svit- klimat - relєf), having primed the bioclimatic latitude and altitude zonality. At his own work `` Cosmos '' Humboldt, having broken the first crock to the ground, will look at the earth's surface (the subject of geography) as a special shell, developing a thought not only about interconnection, ale and about the interaction of the earth, the sea, the sea nature. You must follow the term `` life '', behind its wickedness is analogous to the biosphere and also the `` sphere of reason '', which, having taken a lot of information, I will call the noosphere.

In one hour with A. Humboldt pratsyuvav Karl Ritter (1779-1859), professor of the Berlinsky University, the forerunner of the first department of geography in Nimechchin. Prior to the Ritter introduction to the science of the term `` land exploration '', having pushed back only to assess the spaciousness of the sphere of social development geographic objects... K. Ritter bouv is purely a study of the environment and, unaffected, because of the great popularity of this landlord, the natural part of them is unoriginal. The earth is the subject of geography - K. Ritter proponuvav to look at the life of the human race, however, the solution of the problem and nature - the people of the world wriggled in trying to come across, did not know - the science of natural science with God.

Development of a geographic thought in Russia in the 18-19th century. tied with the names of the most popular students - M.V. Lomonosov, V.N. Tatishcheva, S.P. Krasheninnikova V.V. Dokuchava, D.N. Anuchina, A.I. Voєykova and ін.
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M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), as viewed by K. Ritter, was the organizer of science, a great practitioner. Winning the sleep system, bringing the atmosphere on Venus, displaying electrical and optical effects in the atmosphere (blinks). At pratsi `` On the spheres of the earth '' teachings pіdkreslіv the importance of the historical approach to science. History permeates creativity, not only because of the one who speaks about the black earth, or about tectonic ruks... Law form the relєfu, vikladeni M.V. Lomonosov, do vvazhayut vchenymi-geomorphology. M.V. Lomonosov є the master of the Moscow State University.

V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) in the monograph `` Russian chernozem '' and A.I. Voykov (1842-1916) in the monograph `` Klimati earthly coo, Especially Russia '' on the butt of the soil and the climate, they open the folding mechanism of the interaction of the components in the geographic shell. In the 19th century V.V. Dokuchaev to come to the most important theoretical study in zagalnogo land exploration - the law of geographic zonality, it is the general law of nature, which extends to all components of nature (including land, non-organisms).

U 1884 ᴦ. D.N. Anuchin (1843-1923) at the Moscow State University Organizational Department of Geography and Ethnography. U 1887 ᴦ. the Department of Geography is taught at the St. Petersburg University, and the Department of Geography is at the Kazan University. Organizer of the Department of Geography at Kharkiv University in 1889 ᴦ. becoming a scientist V.V. Dokuchava A.N. Krasnov (1862-1914), a prelude to the steppes and foreign paths, creator of the Batumi Botanical Garden, in 1894 ᴦ. becoming the first doctor of geography in Russia for the publication of his dissertation. A.N. Krasnov, speaking about the three rice of scientific land exploration, which is based on the old geography:

The science of earthly knowledge is not to describe the development of nature's manifestations to the staff, but to bring a mutual connection and mutual enrichment between the manifestations of nature;

The science of earthquake is not the last side of the manifestations of nature, but its genesis;

I will describe the science of land-use not in an invisible, static nature, but in nature that changes, so I can develop my own history.

A.N. Krasnov is the author of the first Russian handbook for universities in zagalny land exploration. At the methodological introduction to `` Fundamentals of Geography, '' the author says that the geography of vivch is not around the events and processes, but on the other hand, geographic complexes - wilderness, steppes, regions of new snows and lions, etc. Such a glance at geography as a science about geographic complexes will be found in geography literature.

A very clear thought about the newest obolonts of the Earth as a subject of physical geography by P.I. Brownovim (1852-1927). At the forefront of the course `` General physical geography '' P.I. Brownov wrote that the physical geography of vivcha is the current attachment of the earthly shell, which is formed from some concentric spherical shells: the lithosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere. All the spheres penetrate one into the whole, enveloping the Earth with their own interaction, and all of them are sent to the new manifestation. Vivchennya tsієї vzaєmodії - one of the most important departments of physical geography, to be able to work on its own, as well as in the development of geology, meteorology and іn.
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native sciences.

U 1932 ᴦ. A.A. Grigor'ev (1883-1968) in the form of a primitive statute `` The subject and the establishment of physical geography '', in which it is about those that the earth's surface is obviously a special vertical physical-geographic zone, characterized by a glimpse the lithosphere, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere, the development and development of the same organic life, the manifestation of a folding, albeit one physical and geographical process. Kilka rockiv according to A.A. Grigor'ev (1937) primed geographic envelope as the subject of physical geography, assigning a special monograph. In the first place, robots know about priming and the main method for achieving GO is the balance method, in the first place, the radioactivity balance, heat balance and science.

At the center of L.S. Berg (1876-1950) laid the foundations for the landscape and geographic zones. In the early 1940s, A.A. Grigor'ev about the physical-geographic oblontsi and the physical-geographic process and L.S. Berg about landscapes. S.V. Kalesnik (1901-1977), who showed that two do not directly overstep one over one, but represent the different sides of the subject of physical geography - geographic envelope. Given a point of view, I knew the involvement in the fundamental practice of S.V. Kalesnik `` The Foundations of Outer Geometry '' (1947 1955). The robot therefore took a wide knowledge of the geographic envelope as the subject of physical geography

The development of civil society on the noospheric stage of the year is great respect for geographic forecasting and monitoring, ᴛ.ᴇ. control over the camp of nature and the transfer of potential development.

Najvazhlivishe zavdannya of modern geography - viroblennya scientific foundations rational vikorystannya natural resources... Preservation and improvement of the natural environment. For the first time in the region, it is important to introduce the laws of change and the development of civil defense in the minds of the intensive management of natural resources, the inevitable transformation of the new environment with active technogenic injection.

It’s more important to see natural and technological disasters, and in the world of increasing numbers of new and new technologies.

One of the most important geography establishments є the advancement of the relationship between people and nature, the development of the strategy of the evolution of people and nature.

1.3. Basic methods of doslіdzhen

All the principles of methods of geographic preliminaries are brought up to three categories: foreign science, interdisciplinary and specific for this science (according to F.M. Milkova, 1990). Using the method of scientific research є materialistic dialectics. Її laws і basic provisions about everything The general connection of appearances, the unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of some changes from yakіsnі, methodological basis geography. From material dialectics of dressings and historical method... In physical geography, the historical method of knowledge has its own twist in paleogeography. The science of science system pidhid up to the pre-slidzhuvany object. Kozhen ob'єkt sprymaєatsya yak foldne otvorennya, which is stored in structural parts, which interchange one with one.

Interdisciplinary methods - headquarters for a group of sciences. In geography - ϶ᴛᴏ mathematical, geochemical, geophysical methods and modeling method. For vivchennya ob'єktіv vikoristovuyut kіlkіsnі characteristics, mathematical statistics. It will be an hour that the computer processing of materials will become widespread. mathematical method- an important method in geography, ale, a lot of testing, memorization of some of the characteristics of the development of creativity, misleading specialties. Geochemical and geophysical methods allow to assess the flow of speech and energy in geographic obolontsi, circulation, thermal and water modes.

Model (modeling method)- graphical image of the object depicts the structure and dynamic links, which gives the program to the audience. The wide popularity of the model of the maybutny camp of the biosphere M.M. Moiseev.

Prior to the specific methods in geography, the descriptions, expeditions, cartographic, aerocosmiths are applied.

Ratio-description and cartographic methods- the oldest methods in geography. A. Humboldt wrote in `` Pictures of the Origin '', how to tweak the views of the nature of the distant lands and to present the results of the times of history - the knowledge of geography. There are a number of functions to choose from: the area of ​​various appearances, the distribution of similar appearances, we do not know how to roam. Using a porous-descriptive method to serve the kind of izolinia - izothermy, izogips, izobari, etc. Without them, it is unwise to develop a complex scientific discipline of the physical and geographical cycle.

Naybіlsh ovne and rіznobіchnne zasosuvannya ravnialno-descriptive method is known in regional studies.

expedited method we call it polovim. Polish material, selected in the expeditions, to become the foundation of geography, spiraling into whatever theory can be developed.

Expedition is a method of collecting polish material, taking the ear from the ancient hours. Herodotus in the middle of the 5th century BC The road went up, which gave him the necessary material for the history of the countryside of the country. In his nine-lined pratsi `` History '', he described the nature, nation, religion of the Bagatokh regions (Babylon, Mala Asia, Egypt), now the tribute about the Chorne Sea, Dnipri, Don. Far from the era of the Great Geographical Indications - the roads of Columbus, Magellan, Vasco da Gami і іn.). Along with them was put the Great Pivnichnu Expedition in Russia (1733-1743), the meta of which was in the preliminaries of Kamchatka (the vivchen nature of Kamchatka, the witness of the pivnichnuyu pivnichnuyu America, described in the Uzbek The icy ocean, Mapped extreme pivnichna point Asia - Ms. Chelyuskin). A glib slid in the history of modern geography was deprived of the Academic Expedition of 1768-1774. Οʜᴎ Buli complex, in їkh zavdannya there was a description of nature, the nation and the state of the majestic territory - European Russia, the Urals, a part of Siberia.

A typical Polish doslidzhen є geographic stationaries. The initiative of the end should be established by A.A. Grigor'evu, the first stationary for the first time in the Tien Shan. The geographical stationary of the State Hydrological Institute in Valdai, the geographical stationary of Moscow State University, is widely popular.

vivchennya geographic maps before entering the field, it is important for successful Polish robots. At the end of the hour, glades appear in tribute, and areas of complex doslіdzhen begin. Karty is a child's bag of polovy robots, the stench is to visualize the structure and structure of vivchenyh objects, to show them in conjunction.

Aerophotozyomka to be victorious in geography from the 30s of the 20th century, cosmic zyomki It was announced recently. Οʜᴎ allow in the complex, on the great territories and from the great fortune to assess the knowledge of the sense of the word.

balance method- in the base there is a universal physical law- the law of conservation of speech and energy. Having installed the new paths to the entrance and the output of speech and energy and changing flows, the glimpse of these developments may be judged by what was accumulated in the geosystem of cych substances, or it was damaged by it. The balance method vikoristovaetsya in land exploration as a result of the progress of energy, water and salt regimes, gas warehouse, Biological and other circulation.

All geographic advances are specific geographic pidhid- fundamentally about the interconnection and interconnection of phenomena, a complex look at nature. Wines are characterized by territoriality, globalism, history.

Zagalne zemleznavstvo in the system of geographic sciences - understanding and vision. Classification and special features of the category "Regional land science in the system of geographical sciences" 2014, 2015.

plan:

Entry

• 1 History of geography
  • 1.1 Geography of the Ancient Descent
  • 1.2 Antique middle sea geography
  • 1.3 Geography of Serednovichchia
  • 1.4 Epoch of Great Geographical Indications
  • 1.5 Epoch Expedition
  • 1.6 Scientific and theoretical display XIX- ear XX table
• 2 Geographic view
• 3 Map yak the basis of geographic doslidzhen
• 4 Geographic picture of the world and geographic culture
• 5 System of Geographical Sciences
  • 5.1 physical geography
  • 5.2 Social and economic geography
• 6 Personnel
• 7 Basic geographic problems
• 8 Basic Geographical Discussions
literature

Entry

Geography: (Gretz. γεωγραφία , Land description, від γῆ - Earth i γράφω - I write, describe)

1. A single complex of sciences, in order to evolve the geographic envelope of the Earth and to focus on the evolved spacious-clock patterns. The main objects of the Institute of Geographical Sciences are the geosphere (biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and soil cover) and geosystems (landscapes, natural zones, biogeocenoses ...)
2. star knowledge about the spacious-hour peculiarities of whether a territory, an object, a process (geography of the continent and oceans, geography of Russia, geography of the tundra, geography of broader bird flu, geography of karst processes N)

Physical card svitu (Middle) (Great 2 MB)

Ob'kt vivchennya geography - the laws and regularities of the distribution and intermode of the components of the geographic center and їkh day on the ryvnyi rіvnya. The folding of the object of preliminaries and the breadth of the subject area have zoomed in the differentiation of the United Geography on a number of special (galuzev) scientific disciplines, which set up the system of geographic sciences. Within this framework, natural (physical and geographical) and community (social and economic) geographical sciences are seen. Inodi okremo vidіlyayut geographic cartography, as an encirclement of geographic discipline.

Geography is one of the found sciences. Bagato її the foundations of boules were laid in the era of Greece. Uzagalniv tsei dosvid vidatny geographer Claudius Ptolemy in the 1st century AD f. The development of the ancient geographic tradition of the fall on the era of the Renaissance, which is meant to be a reappraisal of the era of ancient Greekism and significant advances in cartography, which was taken over by the government. The foundations of modern academic geography in the 1st half of the 19th century were laid by Oleksandr Humboldt and Karl Ritter.

1. History of geography

1.1. Geography of the Ancient Descent

Already in 2 yew. BC That is, in Ancient Egypt, expeditions were ordered to the center of Africa, along the Seredland and Red Seas. The rise of peoples, the development of trade, expanded the knowledge of people about the comforting expanses, and the newcomers of the organization around Sontsyu, Misyatsyu and zirok. Degree of land farming and cattle-breeding from bottling and other periodicals natural diseases I will appear on the calendar.

At 3-2 thousand years BC That is, representatives of the Harappan civilization (on the territory of Pakistan) saw the muson. Element of geography reveals the sacred ancient Indian books: in the Vedas, a chapter is assigned to cosmology, in the Mahabharata one can find the transcend of the oceans, gir, and richok. Already IX-VIII centuries BC. e. in Ancient China at the choice of a meeting for the construction of the fortresses, they stored pictures of the old dalyanoks. At the III century BC. That is, you create a whole lot of geography, a compass and an adjunct for visibility, the "Regional Atlas" to China.

1.2. Antique middle sea geography

Svitu map, broken by Ptolemy

The pre-Socratic philosophical tradition has already given rise to a number of changes before the advent of geography. Anaximander was hanging out about those, that the Earth has the shape of a cylinder, and having broken the revolutionary pretense, but on the other side of the "cylinder" people are also guilty of life. Win vidav and create geography.

The IV Art. BC e. - V Art. n. That is, the antiquity-encyclopedic scholars began to investigate the theory of walking around and around the world, to depict a chair in the country. The results of the qih doslіdzhen became a clever declaration about the Earth yak about kulі (Aristotle), the formation of maps and plans, geographic coordinates, Introduced into the family of parallels and meridians, cartographic projections. Cratet Malsky, philosopher-stoyk, vivchav budova earthly kuli and opening the model of the globe, letting it go Wash the weather pіvnіchno and pіvnіchnoі pіvkul.

"Geography" in 8 volumes of Claudia Ptolemy was based on the views of more than 8000 geographic names and coordinates as many as 400 points. Eratosthenes Kirenskiy for the first time has changed the arc of the meridian and estimated the dimensions of the Earth, so that he can find the very term "geography" (land description). Stribuni was the ancestor of local knowledge, geomorphology and paleogeography. The ancestors of Aristotle have the basis of hydrology, meteorology, oceanology, and a subset of geographic sciences.

1.3. Geography of Serednovichchia

Until the middle of the 15th century. vіdkrittya grekіv bouly zabutі, і "center of geographic science" is changing to Skhіd. This role in geography passed down to the Arab. Prices and mandates - Ibn Sina, Biruni, Idrisi, Ibn Battuta. Important geographic views in Iceland, Greenland and Pivnichniy America The bullets were crushed by the Normans, as well as by the Novgorodians, they reached Spitsbergen and the girl of Obi.

Marco Polo

The Venetian merchant Marco Polo is a vidkriv for Europeans in Central Asia. And Opanas Nikitin, having walked along the Caspian, Black and Arabian Seas and having reached the Indian, described the nature and life of the whole land.

1.4. Epoch of Great Geographical Indications

XV-XVII centuries - the development of geography on the background of culture and science. Geography has become a popular science, filled with information about nature and population as much as possible of all land, began to travel to the countryside and private. The map of Mercator Boule shows the real outlines of the continents, and the map of Leonardo da Vinci shows the hypothetical Great Northern continent. "Great armchair" was shot at Russia Russian state in 1627 roci.

Map of Europe Mercator, 1554

1.5. Epoch Expedition

In the XVII-XVIII centuries, the buzz of new lands and nobles were carried out with a sovereign swing. Great significance was added to the registration, cartography and communication of knowledge. rattles On the continent End of the screening of Australia (Yanszon) and Oceania. Three navkolosvіtnіh expeditions have visited James Cook, іdvіvі Hawaii and the Great Bar'erniy Reef. The Russian first-timers made their way to Siberia on the Dalekiy Skhid.

MV Lomonosov in 1739 opened the Geographical Department, and under Katerina II he created the first cadastre of land management. Krym tsyogo, win proponuvav ideas about the uninterrupted change of the face of the Earth under the flow of internal and callous forces, about the collapse povitryan mas, About the globes of the earth, etc.

Olexander von Humboldt, 1806

1.6. Scientific and theoretical studies of the XIX century - the ear of the XX century

The values ​​of the territorial views were reconciled with the wide theoretical explanations, the views of geographic laws (Humboldt, Ritter, Reclus, Thünen). Geography was not surrounded by a description of the facts, but it was explained by the date. Conducted applied geographic advances and scientific geographic support.

Russia has formulated: geographeric partnership, National geographic schools, representatives of yak (F. P. Litke, P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, M. M. Przhevalsky, P. A. Kropotkin, N. N. Miklukho-Maclay, A. I. Voykov, V.V.Dokuchaev, K.I. Arsenyev) made a great contribution to the advancement of Eurasia and other regions of the world.

In 1884, the first department of geography was established at the Moscow University of D. N. Anuchin.

2. Geographic view

3. Map yak is the basis of geographic doslidzhen

The companion's sign of the Earth.

“From the picture every geographer has to go to the picture and come to the picture, start from the picture and end with a picture” (N. N. Baranskiy). Uninvolved in the geography of new methods, the cartographic method is one of the main ones when conducting a presentation. Tied together, the card is the best way to transmit spacious information. The method of modeling in geography, geoinformation and distance methods and spiraling into the cartographic method.

4. Geographic picture of the world and geographic culture

For geographic culture, the most common reason for the culture of geography is science. The culture of geographic knowledge yak vchenyh geographers, as well as the population. In robots "Geographic culture" and "Geographic picture of the world" V. P. Maksakovsky looks at the relationship between the understanding and the position of the modern geography. The geographic culture of wine includes the offensive components: 1) geographic picture of the world, 2) geographic mission, 3) methods of geography, 4) mova geography. It is a pity that there is a wide range of scientific geographic culture, because the suspension is mainly based on the descriptive geography, and there is no information about the methods and methods of such geography.

5. System of Geographical Sciences

5.1. physical geography

About the development of physical geography є geographic shell as a whole, warehouses and natural complexes and components.

The basis of physical geography is to become a land-study and landscape-science. Zagalne zemleznavstvo is engaged in the development of the laws of the geographic envelope as a whole, the landscape knowledge of the landscape complex.

Galuzeví sciences:

• Biogeography.
• Climatology.
• Geomorphology.
• Hydrology.
• Oceanology.
• Glaciology.
• Cryolithology.
• Geography of soil.
• Paleogeography.

5.2. Social and economic geography

Social and economic geography of the territorial organization of the suspension, growing on the chotiri galuzevs block (with their own parts:

• Economic geography
• Social geography
• political geography
• cultural geography
• historical geography

Regional denomination and geo-urbanism are disciplines assigned to a comprehensive description of the environment and the development of problems.

6. Personnel

Vcheni, who made a significant contribution to the establishment of geography as a science

Olexander von Humboldt 1847

Karl Rittter

• Walter Isard
• Ivan Gavrilovich Alexandrov
• Dmitro Mikolayovich Anuchin
• Kostyantin Ivanovich Arsenyev
• Mykola Mykolajovich Baranskiy
• Lev Semenovich Berg
• William Bunge
• Bernhard Waren
• Alfred Weber
• Volodymyr Ivanovich Vernadsky
• Paul Vidal de la Blache
• Oleksandr Ivanovich Voykov (Div.)
• Alfred Göttner
• Andriy Oleksandrovich Grigor'ev
• Oleksandr von Humbold
• Vasil Vasilovich Dokuchaev
• Karl Sauer
• Anatoly Grigorovich Isachenko
• Stanislav Vikentiyovich Kalesnik
• Mykola Mykolajovich Kolosovsky
• Andriy M. Krasnov
• Walter Kristalller
• Glib Maksimilianovich Krzhizhanovsky
• Volodymyr Svyatoslavovich Kusov
• serpnya Lesh
• Volodymyr Pavlovich Maksakovsky
• Gerhard Fridrich Miller
• Fedir Mikolajovich Milko
• Lev Illich Mechnikov
• Georgiy Fedorovich Morozov
• Volodymyr Sergiyovich Preobrazhensky
• Fridrikh Ratzel
• Karl Rittter
• Kostyantin Oleksiyovich Salishchev
• Veniamin Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shanskiy
• Petro Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shanskiy
• Mikola Adolfovich Solntsev
• Mikola Volodimirovich Sukachov
• Stribuni
• Vasil Mikitovich Tatishchev
• Johann Heinrich von Thünen
• Thorsten Hagerstrand
• Peter Hagget
• Devid Harvі
• Richard Hartshorne
• Richard Chorley
• Jean Jacques Elise Reclus

Mandrels, who have made a message (without mandates)

The rise of Marco Polo

• Vasco da Gama
• Christopher Columbus
• Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern
• Mikhailo Petrovich Lazar
• Afanasy Nikitin
• Marco Polo
• tour Heyirdal

7. Basic geographic problems

Problems like standing on the road to the development of geography and geographic sciences.

• The problem of one geography as a science and a posture of one object of knowledge.
• The problem of "theoretical geography" and philosophical foundations in geography.
• The problem of "consuming" practical sciences (land ordering, melioration and in.) And suspension of interest to geography.

8. Basic geographic discussions

Dani debates are relevant in geography, play a great role in geography and, perhaps, do not think of an unambiguous solution. A lot of geographic discussions were discussed about terminology, classification and other formal motives. On the other hand, terminology and classification are not just the same, as there are concentrated victories of theoretical glances in the people, and for the discussion about the meaning of the role of the whole of scientific schools, theory and hypotheses.

• The designation of geography is a science, that is a science, the subject of a study of geographic sciences.
• The designation of the understanding "geographic shell", the view of the geographic shell from the geospheres of the Earth.
• The designation of the system of geographic sciences, the center of science in the whole system and of significance for the other sciences.
• The essence of geography as a single science and the subject of geography.
• Theoretical geography and such, as in the sciences, can be called theoretical geography, or a discipline, in order to understand the geographic theory.
• Horological ideology in geography, its supremacy in geographic preliminaries, Chi є geography of "pure" chorological science is not guilty until the end of the vastness of laws.
• The definition of the "map", the view of the cartography from the other models, the essence of the cartographic method of information.
• It is essential to understand the "landscape", "natural-territorial complex", "Geosystem", and the general landscape, the essence of the physical-geographical area.
• "Discreteness" and "continuity" of the geographic envelope

literature

• Mukitanov N.K. From Strabo to our days: (Evolution geographic phenomenaі іdey). - M .: Dumka, 1985 .-- 240 p. - 45,000 approx.
• Stribuni. Geography / Per. z waln G. A. Stratanovskiy Sergiy Georgiyovich ed. OO Kruger, zag. ed. S. L. Utchenko - M .: Ladomir 1994
• Brown L.A. History of geographical maps. - M., Tsentropoligraf, 2006 - 480 p.
• Clavijo, Rui Gonzalez de... The schodennik went up to Samarkand to the yard of Timur (1403-1406 pp.) / Per. zi old-span., foreword. і comments І. S. Mirokova. - M .: Nauka, 1990 .-- 211 p.
• Limnology and paleolimnology of Mongolia. Science statistics / Group of authors: N. Batnasan, N. Dorofeyuk, A. Dulmaa and I. - SPb.: Nauka, 1994 .-- 304 p.

Danish abstract of warehouses on the basis of statistics from the Russian Newsletter

Lecture 1. Frontier of land exploration

geographer The complex is called a complex of different sciences, which extends into several blocks: physical-geography, social-economic-geography sciences, cartography, krainoznavstvo. Kozhen from tsikh blocks, in his own heart, pidrozdіlyaєtsya on the system of geographic sciences.

The block of physical and geographical sciences is composed of the outlying physical and geographical sciences, private (galuzev) physical and geographical sciences, paleogeography. Headquarters of Physics and Geography Science home physical geography (home land science) and regional physical geography.

All physical and geographic sciences are ob'ednu single ob'єkt doslіdzhennya. Infectious even more of the people have come to a mental thought about those, that all physics and geography sciences vivchuyu geographic shell. For the designation of M.I. Mikhailova (1985), physical geography is the science about the geographic envelope of the Earth, its warehouse, structure, particular formulation and development, spacious differentiation.

Rid of physical and geographic sciences of ideas to the field of land exploration, landscape science, paleogeography and private Galuzevic sciences. Tsi development of science ob'єdnu one ob'єkt vivchennya - geographic obolonka; the subject of life in the skin of sciences is specific, individual - not only one of the structural parts of the geographic envelope (geomorphology is the science of the earth's surface, climate science and meteorology, science, how to develop the shape of the - the laws of the survey of soils, their development, the warehouse and the laws of the distribution, the hydrology - science, which is vital to the water envelope of the Earth, the bio-geography of the warehouse of living organisms, the expansion of the formation of the biocene. The head of paleogeography is the development of the geographic envelope and the dynamics of natural minds in the past geological era. The subject of landscape studies is the thin, most active central sphere of GO - the landscape sphere, which is formed from natural-territorial complexes of a different rank. The subject of vivchennya zagalnogo zemleznavstva (OZ) є structure, internal and external interconnections, dynamics of the function of GO as a whole system.

The geographic shell is an obsyag of speech in the warehouse and I will stand, as a wine in earthly minds and formulating the specific sphere of our planet. The geographic envelope in earth science continues as a part of the planet and the Cosmos, as it is under the rule of earthly forces and evolves in the process of folding cosmic-planetary interaction.

In the system of fundamental geographic education of land science є with a free, well-rounded lanka, between geographic knowledge, navichki and manifestations, recognized in schools, and global natural knowledge. The whole course of the mortgage is the basis of geographic svitoglyadu and milling. Geographic light in land exploration is at the forefront of integrity, processes and phenomena are looked at in the systemic connection between themselves and in the spaciousness. "In earthly knowledge of facts, such as such, respect is transferred to the development of all the common links between them and the creation of the foldable reality of geographic processes in the vastness of all earthly affairs", - wrote S.V. Kalesnik on the past.

Land exploration is traceable to the number of fundamental natural sciences. In the Cycle of Natural Science, earth science as an example of planetary science can be ranked in the same row as astronomy, cosmology, physics, chemistry. The advanced rank of the science about the Earth is geology, geography, geology biology, ecology, etc. In the systems of geographic disciplines, land science takes a special role. It will be a bi "supernatural", which will provide information about all processes and phenomena that are generated by the formation of the planet from the mid-world nebula. For a whole hour on our planet crust We live in speech at the stage of growth. As a result of this interaction from the periphery of the planet, a specific material obsyag was formed - a geographic shell. Vivchennya tsієї obolonki yak complex approval і zadannya zemlevoznanii.

Land exploration is the theoretical base of global ecology - science, as an estimate of the rolling mill and forecast of the closest changes in the geographic envelope as the middle of the development of living organisms for the sake of securing their ecological well-being. In the last hour, the geographic envelope is changing and changing from the purely natural to the natural-anthropogenic and to the completely anthropogenic. It’s a matter of fact, if you’re going to be born to the people and the living, because you’ll be a modern middle-class. From such positions, the main goal of land exploration is the advancement of global changes, which are seen in geographic obolontsi, for the rationalization of the interrelationship of physical, chemical and biological earth processes, and visualization.

Land exploration is the theoretical basis of Evolutionary geography - a majestic block of disciplines that continue to track the history of the development and development of our planet and development. Wonderfulness of the past and argumentation of the reasons and the inheritance of current processes and phenomena in geographic obolonts. In addition, since the beginning of the day has passed, land exploration has added to the deciphering tendencies to develop practically all global problems of participation. Tse a svєrіdny key to the knowledge of the light.

The term "land acquisition" appeared in the middle of the 19th century. with the translation of the Nimetsian geographer K. Ritter with the Russian translations with the curriculum of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shanskiy. Tse word is maє suto rosіyske sounding. In the Danish hour, in the earthly movements of the understanding "earth science", they display the different terms and the previous shift for an hour is twisting. The term "earthmaking" of introductions by Russian pre-ages, as most of the time, the day is displayed as descriptions. It is unlikely that the connection with the tsim is correct when it comes to "earthquake", which was introduced by K. Ritter. Ritter's robots have no such word, they say about the knowledge of the Earth or the geography of the world, and the Russian term is the price of the Russian factions.

Land exploration yak systematically was promoted by the head rank of the XX century. as a result of the most recent geographers and naturalists, as well as the accumulated knowledge. However, the first to be straightforwardly transformed, passing through the paths of all fundamental natural and geographical laws to the preconception on the basis of "everyday" nature, on the basis of optimizing the new middle (natural abnormal) natural anthropological biological development.

Looking at the land exploration as a fundamental natural science of the geographic profile, it is necessary to pay respect to the main methodical reception of the preliminaries of geographic objects - spacious-territorial, i.e. vivchennya of any object in its spacious rostashuvanny and interconnection with navkolishny objects. The geographic shell is an understanding of me, the determination of the glybin (nadra and water) and the height (by the people) to form spirally for the course of geographic processes and manifestations, so that it gradually changes in the hour.

Otzhe, earth science is a fundamental science, so vivchaє natural laws of Budov, function and development of geographic envelope in the same ) the situation and the tendencies of the youthful transformation into the future.

The rounds of earthquake were laid down in the old times, since the people began to turn to their otoches on the Earth and in the Cosmos. However, the ancient misters did not only describe the outskirts. Already from the very cob, people systematically sped for the change of the open space and natural zbigami, in order to build up causal connections. Back to the religious days and the announcement of the divine ear of nature and life, look at navkolishn_y light... This is how the witness and the uyavlennya took shape, the rich wore, madly, geological character.

The Egyptians and Babylonians predicted the hour of the coming of the earth in the fall of the earth, the Greeks and the Romans changed the Earth and established the position in the Cosmos, the Chinese and ancestors of the Indus perceived the sense of life of the Earth as a rule of thumb. their ideological glances and motives of cult sporud. The process of achievement characterizes the pre-scientific period of knowledge and development of geographic knowledge. Bagato vіdkrittya, attributed to the misters of the middle Renaissance, bully vіdomі already in the distant olden times.

In the pre-antique period in the Old-Time India, the victory was about the material substance, which represented itself as an example of non-elementary elements (atoms) anyway. Krim mother, before the inanimate substances, space and hour were set, and also mind peace and peace. The inhabitants of India were the first to vote on the principle of picking up shkodi to live organisms. Ancient China has established a verdict about the zagalny law of the light of speeches, which guides the life of nature and people against the singing natural path, which at once becomes the basis of light from the substance of speech. In the light, everything is in Russia and in change, in the process of all speeches it passes over to its own prototype. Ancient Babylon and Ancient Egypt gave the butt of victorious achievements in astronomy, cosmology and mathematics in the practical life of peoples. There was a vchennya vchennya about the appearance of light (cosmogony) and yogo budov (cosmology). The Babylonians established the correct endowment of the planets, formulated the zorians astral svitoglyad, saw the signs of the zodiac, introduced a 60-degree system of calculation, so that they lie in the basis of the degree world and the scale of the hour, they set up the period of repeating the sleepy days of the millennium. In the era of the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms in Egypt, there was a breakdown of the basics of forecasting Nil bottling, the opening of the sleepy calendar, as if the triviality of fate was determined and 12 months were seen. The Fіnіkіytsі Carthaginians took the knowledge of astronomy for navigating and organizing behind the stars. The ancient peoples of the Bula were caught up in the correct and fundamental until the present hour, a thought about the evolution of the modern world (from simple to folding, from disorder to order), of its continuous minutia and innovation.

In the antique part, the statement about the geocentric Buda Svit was added (K. Ptolemy, 165 - 87 years BC), the "Vsesvit" and "Cosmos" were introduced, the correct estimates of the shape and size of the Earth were given. For a whole hour, the system of sciences about the Earth has been formed, the main strands of which are boules: opisovo-Cultural (Strabo, Pliniy the Elder), mathematical geography (pyphagorean, Hipparchus, Ptolemy) and physical geography (Eratosthenes, Posidonius).

Bagato gave the development of the geography and the development of the geography of the epoch of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance - the hour of the great geographic events (from the end of the 15th century), if they took a wide development of the road, which brought great majesty to the earth Bula practically brought the swelling of the Earth, the unity of the waters of the Svitovoy ocean, the first globes (in the first half of the 15th century. Before the circumnavigation of Magellan). N. Copernicus observed his heliocentric system of Budov and Vsesvita, and D. Bruno followed the idea about the lack of all the world and the multitude of lights. In the oceans there are boules of currents (zokrema, Golfstrom), zones of calm and monsoons. G. Mercator having propelled a new projection and opened card, I will help you to navigate. In the course of this period, the development of geographic descriptions of various geographical descriptions, the establishment of the theories of science by methods of induction (F. Bacon) and deduction (R. Descartes), the development of the method of isolation for folding bathymetric, hypotheses. The design of a green pipe, a thermometer and a barometer made it possible to proceed to the development of experimental geography and instrumental precautions.

At the turn of the XVI and XVII centuries. to fix the contours of earthquake. N. Carpenter (+1625) tried to bring together a view about the nature of the Earth. Three of them (1650), the patroness of B. Varenius appeared, who can be taken into account by an official ear of land exploration, having written down that "the geography is called the one that looks out over the Earth, I explain the report of the authorities." In 1664 R. Descartes gave an explanation of the nature of the Earth in natural science. Having taken into account that the Sonce and all the planets of the Sonyach system were established as a result of the vortex collapse of the other parts of matter, and when the Earth was formed, the differentiation of speech on the fire-water, a rare metal core, solid Qia pratsya gave rise to a rich phenomenon (T. Barnett, J. Woodward, W. Weston) about the walking of bodies in the open space and behavior of the earthly masses. The hypothesis of contracting was announced, based on the glances about the rapidity of the planet in the world of the earth (E. Beaumont); ... First, there was a burst of destruction with the ability to classify living organisms (J. Rey, K. Linney, J. Lamarck), and the natural history of the Earth began to be seen spirally with living organisms, including humans (J. Buffon, G. Leibnitz).

In the middle of the XVIII century. New scientifically grounded theories and hypotheses have appeared. First in a row, name the theory of svitobudovi and the establishment of the Sonya system I. Kant (1755), in which the author was inspired by I. Newton (1 686) laws all sacred labor and to the ruins of motherhood. Win proponuvav the mechanical model of a prodigious light from the collection of a heterogeneous material by the way of self-directed acceleration of the structure. Visibility and inconsistency of all the times, І. Kant spoke about the power of knowledge in this life. By day, s І. Kant began to gain knowledge of the history of nature and the Earth on a strictly scientific basis.

A.Humboldt and K.Ritter, the most important geographers and mandates of the first half of the 19th century, made a great contribution to the development of geographers' understanding and regularities. A. Humboldt (1769-1859) opened a 5-volume pratsy "Cosmos" from the basis of earth science (physical sight in the original edition) and wrote about his rise in Novy Svit in 30 volumes. They have a viklav new ideas: introducing the understanding of "earthly magnetism", "magnetic pole" and "magnetic equator" outline the continents and the position of their axes, vivviv the height of the continents and because of the position of the center of the heavy continental masses. When the atmosphere was invaded by Humboldt, the buli set up a change in the systemic pressure in the processes of the ocean in the latitude and in the weather and in the weather, there is a climatic rise in the heat, the lightness, the external atmosphere of the internal atmosphere, it is brought land. Understanding the "climat" of visions living in a wide geographic sense as the power of the atmosphere, "... much fallowness from the sea and land and virosta on the new level". Win also has primed the fallowness of wildlife in the form of a climate and laid down the foundations of scientific geochemistry.

K.Ritter's im'yam (1779-1859) is connected with the development of modern geography. By showing the integrative role of geography in the natural sciences and knowledge of the process of life, formulating in a whole materialistic look at nature as the essence of all speeches, "the clear near and far from the system," continuous cycles and redevelopment, leading to the interaction of land, sea and turn in the process of functioning. In 1862 Ritter set up the first course in land exploration (translated into Russian in 1864), the basis of which in vvvazhiv physical geography, how to explain the forces (processes) of nature. The original system of the nature of the Earth is seen as a unique organization and is gradually developing a single organism, so that it evolves in a special way, laws and mechanisms of development. K. Ritter has seen thoughts, but only spiraling on the idea of ​​earthly organism, for the integrity of the Earth, it is possible to see the development of the warehouse parts, the intelligence of the building of the planet. Winning the understanding of the "earthly space" as a completely trivial unity and one of the objects of physical geography and "landscape" in its everyday meaning, the role of the vital organ is also important. Let us examine the broken-down statement about the structure of plastic and the configuration of the earth's surface, the classification of great forms of relief, introduced by the understanding "nagir'ya," іznіkh natural tіl and і ethnosіv from geographic position.

K. Ritter, having established a school of science, included such great geographers as E. Reklu, F. Ratzel, F. Richtgofen, E. Lenz, who made a significant contribution to the intelligence of geographic features around the ancient parts of the Earth and the development of the theory of the geographic land ...

The other half of the 19th century characterized by new rozroboks in geography, for which self-disciplines have appeared. Naybіlsha role in the whole hour should be played by the Russian prelіdniki.

A.I. Voeikov (1842-1916) vidomy yak the founder of climatology. Vin having set up the right factor for illuminating the climate, priming the energy balance of the earth, explaining the mechanism of heat transfer and climate processes in different geographic zones.

The interconnection of natural manifestations was heard by V.V.Dokuchavim (1846-1903). The main result of yogo prats went into the development of the understanding of the "natural complex" 100% of the soil - an independent natural type and product of a mutual climate, living organisms and mothers' generations. Prior to the beginning of the day, they formed the basis of the law of light zonality, which he introduced to the law of light zoning. We have developed a program of complex and single paradigms of the new natural knowledge - the science of the development of life between living and inanimate nature, between people and navkolishnim light.

G.M. Visotskogo (1865-1940) outside of the hundredth introduction into the rational processes of the functioning of natural complexes. Vin having established the water-regulatory role of the upper horizon in the ground, having seen the type of soil behind the nature of the water regime. You can see the meaning of the forest in the hydroclimatic peculiarity of the geographic envelope and its role as one of the factors in the development of the geographic middle. In the methodical introduction of the last decade, the sciences about the Earth have been filled with space-hour diagrams for the development of changes.

Approximately in the city of Z. Passarga (1867-1958), in the fundamental understanding of physical geography - "natural landscape" - the territory, every component of nature appears to be apparent. Wien saw the landscape factor, sklav landscape classification in the butt of Africa.

In Russia in the world, L.S. Berg (1876-1950) took care of close food in the city, who primed the understanding of the "landscape zone" as the sufficiency of some and quiet landscapes and the development of primed areas of Siberia and Turkestan, as well as Radiansky Union on geographic (landscape) zones. Win solidifying the understanding about the landscape as about the regularity of one thing and the other, which is infused into parts, and parts into the whole. Um boules laid the foundations of a landscape-geographical area with visions of zones and landscapes like really existing natural settings with natural boundaries. Berg formulated an idea about the change of landscapes in the course of the development of the planet and the imperfection of these changes. Geography in respect of the science of geographic landscapes, giving them a regional character, and land exploration as a kind of physical geography.

A.N. Krasnov (1862 - 1914) vіdomy yak the founder of constructive land exploration, so allowing him on the basis of development and zdіsniti go in and out of the Chornomorsk subtropics. Having started the first course of "Spilnoe zemleznavstva" (1895-1899), the knowledge of the causal link between forms and appearances, as a sense of the vision of the old parts of the earth's surface, as well as the nature of life. Krasnov pidkreslyuvav anthropocentric geography. You must follow the classification of climates and the dewline cover of the Earth, the area of ​​the earth's soil according to the types of height, which are based on the zonal-regional principle. Prior to the rise of zonality of geographic processes and manifestations of the development of V.V. Appreciate the scientific decline of A. N. Krasnov, it is necessary to be cared for, since he became the first forerunner of land exploration, which practically involved a part of his fortunes in the awakening of the great territory. At the forefront of the foresters of the earthquake, the teachings didn’t describe the development of nature, but the mutual connection and the mutual understanding between the nature’s beasts, vazyushya, I didn’t know the way of the earth.

Like A. N. Krasnov's handler, A. A. Kruber's "Outlandish Land Exploration" (1917) was seen, and the understanding of the "earthly obolonka" or "geosphere" was given (by A.A. Grigoriev). Krubera drew on the unity of all the components of the geographic middle, as it is necessary to vivate in integrity. Tsey p_druchnik buv will be the main one for the entire first half of the XX century.

Roboti V.I. Vernadsky (1863-1945) The introduction of the understanding "the speech is alive" and the proof of the widest expansion and continuous participation in natural processes and events, they set food about the need for a new intelligence of the day of the geographic shell, as it would become a visually appealing form of the biology. The scientific and philosophical world allowed the Vernadskiy order with the second (L. Pasteur, P. Kyuri, I. Mechnikov) to think about the cosmic prowess of life (the theory of pansperm) and the special character of living speech. The biosphere of the ideas of roses is linked to the system of living organisms and the middle of life. It’s a pity, look at Vernadsky, including the one about the noosphere, for the last hour they were inadequately demanded and practically didn’t get involved in land exploration.

A new stage in the development of land exploration is growing in the ear and in the middle of the XX century. і dressing with the names A.A. Grigor 'єva (1883-1968), S.V. Kalesnik (1901-1977), K.K. Markov (1905-1980) and others who led land exploration on a lucky way development. A.A. Grigoriev in the fundamental understanding, which is about the process and the subject of geography - "geographic obolonka" and "one physical and geographical process" Earth. Vin stating about the earthquake as a potential development and the nose of the general planetary strategy of seeing people in a hundred-and-a-half-century with nature.

S.V. Kalesnik, having included the achievement of land exploration in his own hand (1947, that date), having included in the new new judgment about the components of the geographic envelope. Tsey is a handler and for the year securing his value and a free butt for writing basic materials.

The trivial differentiation of geography has led to detailed distributions of the surrounding parts. Special predictions of ice cover and paleogeographic significance (K. K. Markov), geophysical mechanism of differentiation of the earth's surface from geographical zones and elevation of geographic zones (M. I. Budiko), S. Monin), energetic to the balance of the Earth behind the distant caveats (K.Ya. At the center of Bulo, a periodic law of geographic zonality was established by Grigoriev-Budiko, the role of bioorganic speech in the formulation of specific geological statements of the distant past (A.V. ecology, they were practically angry at being united in the development of "exact" (physical and mathematical) and "natural" (biological and geographic) natural science into an integrated system of earth science.

The middle and half of the otherXx v. The boules were especially reminiscent of the podіyami in the іznіh galuzi of knowledge, as they cracked the yakіsnіh snakes in the glances and judgments.

Some of them are significant:

the surfaces of the planets and their compatriots are folded by the rocky rocks of the main and ultrabasic stocks and the crater irregularities - traces of meteorites falling or of the space bodies;

on objects sleep system Mayzhe all over the place volcanic processes and icy lighting, some of which may be frozen water; most space til maє

I wipe the atmosphere with traces of sourness and organic spoluk(Methane and in.); widened in space organic speech, Including beyond the boundaries of the Sonyachnoy system; near the Earth there is a saw sphere - a cosmic saw, which can be stored from a mineral and organic speech;

living organisms on the Earth have evolved in all spheres and in different situations: at all the midst of the highest levels on visible surfaces for a thousand meters, at temperatures of the mid-range in hundreds of degrees for Celsius and in a few thousand even up to absolute zero, at the bottom of the oceans in the minds of volcanic vyverzheni (bil and black curts), in young brines, including metal, in absolute temperament and without the presence of sour; photosynthesis can take place without sleepy light (with light from underwater vyverzhny), and bacteria can vibrate organic speech for chemical energy (chemosynthesis); living organisms, superbly versatile and folding for their own budget, wanting to be stored up from the interchange of biochemistry and genetic codes;

the bottom of the oceans is formed by the head rank of young basalts with bulbs of litter, stretching the rest of 150 million rocks; the expansion of riftogenic devices at the bottom of the oceans in the early hours of the day with average sizes of 4 - 5 cm / ric; at the bottom of the oceans, the processes of degassing of mantle speech are widely developed - magmi, volcanic gases, juvenile (first appeared) clay waters, Thermal and metal-bearing apparatuses;

to grow in principle;

the continents may be old (more than 3.0 - 3.5 billion rubles) Archean nuclei, so that one can tell about the permanent development of these central parts and the growing areas of the modern continents as the leading rank for the growth of the youthful structures; girski breed the continent of the pre-Paleozoic period (about 1 billion rubles) in a large amount of metamorphization;

pitoma vaga sour atmospheric drink more pompous vagi of photosynthetic souring, which will add to clayey dzherelo yogo pokazhennya when degassing the speech of the mantle; The pretreatment of degassed speech in the land boundaries showed the presence in new (%) of carbon dioxide in carbon - close to 70, oxide in carbon - up to 20, acetylene - 9, sulfur oxide - 3.7, methane - 2.1, a fraction of nitrogen, water and ethane 1%;

in the comrades of the Svitovoy ocean, there is a change of water everywhere in the direction of the lower and lower streams, the versatile, high-rise streams, whirlwinds and in.;

the interaction of the ocean and the atmosphere has a more folding character, not transferred earlier (for example, El-Niño and La-Niña);

natural disasters to bring about the replacement of the great masters of speech and energy, so that the effect of anthropogenic influx into the navkolishn middle is overwhelming.